2008 Herbarist 74 by HerbSocietyofAmerica

Best of OF THE

The Herbarist is the journal of The Herb Society of America, a blend of scholarly and popular approaches to the dissemination of information on the use of herbs. The Herb Society of America is dedicated to promoting the knowledge, use and delight of herbs through educational programs, research and sharing the experience of its members with the community.

The Herbarist i Issue 74 2008

A Message from

THE

S The Best of The Herbarist Committee Members Anne Abbott joined The Society in 1990 as a member-at-large, forming the New Orleans Unit in 1991. She served on the HSA Board as a unit chairman until 1995, then as New Unit Chairman, until the re-organization of the board in 1997. In 2001 she became the Plant Collections Chairman, a job she still holds. Anne became HSA vice-president in 2004, succeeding to the presidency in 2006. She was a member of the Potomac Unit from 2001-2006 while she lived in Washington, D.C. She remains active with the New Orleans and North Carolina Units, still working with the Salvia Collection in New Orleans, and is a newly elected member of the Board of Trustees of the New Orleans Botanical Garden. She has researched herbs from the eighteenth century in New Orleans, and has a special interest in native herbs. She is a master gardener in New Orleans, and has lectured to interested groups in the New Orleans area, as well as other places in the southeast. Linda Lain, a native Texan now residing in Houston, Texas, has been a member of The Herb Society of America since 1990. She is a member of The South Texas Unit and has served her fellow herbies in several capacities, including unit chair. Most recently, Linda has served for the past six years on the board of directors for HSA as Secretary/Communications Chair. After 25 years in the corporate world, wearing business suits and sitting behind a desk, she resigned and has more time to spend on herself and her family. Since retiring, Linda has become certified as a Harris County Master Gardener. She enjoys reading, road trips, working in the garden, and observing backyard nature from the porch swing.

The Herbarist i Issue 74 2008

ince 1935, The Herbarist has been published annually. This 2008 project, in celebration of our 75th anniversary, encompasses the years 1935-2005, an enormous number of articles from which to make selections. The authors in the selected group are some of the best-known names in The Society: Webster, Hill, Foster, Tucker, Rollins, Mears, Lord, Felton, Jones, Burrage, Barclay, and more. If they are not the best known, they should be. Not every great article could be republished, not every excellent author is represented. Selection was difficult. The committee must be congratulated for their work and the care with which they selected the articles! The articles chosen reflect both our history, and a tremendously varied interest in herbs, both technical and “for delight.” As is our membership, it is a cross section of those interests. The remarks of Alexandra Hicks, The Herbarist editor for the 50th anniversary issue, are still apropos: “This issue… salutes not only the founding members whose enthusiasm for herbs launched a society dedicated to furthering the knowledge of herbs, but also [to] all those members who, in the ensuing 50 years, have helped to form it into the prestigious society that it is today.” Mrs. Hicks remarked at how much members have contributed and accomplished, and that was only in the first 50 years! This effort furthers the purpose of the founders in increasing “… the knowledge and use of herbs, and sharing the information…” Reading the articles in past issues of The Herbarist makes me realize anew the wealth of information and knowledge our members possess. The fascination of our members with Dittany of Crete (Origanum dictamnus) is long-standing, revealed in a group of articles from the 1930s to the 1980s. The beginning of the oft-told tale, now become a legend, is in the 1935 article by HSA founder and then-chairman, Anne Burrage. A long-standing controversy in The Society concerns the seal and whether the plant that founder Florence Bratenahl put in her drawing for the seal is thyme or rosemary. The dispute is not settled! Two articles in this issue mention the seal. Priscilla Lord, author of the first history of HSA (1933-1983), may have furthered the confusion by stating in her 1983 Herbarist article (here reprinted) that the plant is rosemary, after quoting minutes of secretary Harriet Brown in the written history (1933-1983), which state that the drawing selected contains seven sprigs of thyme. In the article on the Founders’ Garden in Massachusetts (reprinted on page 74), Mrs. Batchelder, the then chair of the New England Unit, quotes the minutes

PRESIDENT of that 1933 meeting which state that the seal has seven sprigs of thyme, then calls on Anne Burrage, founder and first chairman of The Society, who proceeds to say that the founders selected rosemary as the plant for the seal! I had to chuckle, thinking what a dramatic moment that must have been! No mention anywhere that anyone attempted to clear up the confusion. The remarkable controversy goes on. Besides the above-mentioned articles on Dittany, there are others on Origanum, Lavandula, native herbs, medicinal plants and more. It is good information and references for those of us who are novices or who want to know more about the plants. Little-known plants are highlighted, such as mistletoe, native herbs, capers, etc. The interest in medicinal herbs is apparent in articles dealing with this fascinating subject (1967, 1977, 1993, 1999). Using herbs for flavoring foods is always a popular subject, evidenced by articles from 1962, 1990, 1991, 1999 and 2001. Of course, there is always interest in growing herbs, their nomenclature and uses besides culinary and medicinal. HSA could cite many accomplishments, but I agree with Priscilla “Fuzzy” Lord when she said in 1983 that,“The National Herb Garden is, thus far, the greatest contribution by The Society to the advancement of horticulture knowledge.” The gift of the NHG to the nation resulted from an unparalleled effort by many members working together and making contributions to accomplish a single goal. The article here reprinted gives a sense of the enormity of that project. Jim Adams, former curator of the NHG, said in his preface to The Herb Society of America’s Essential Guide to Growing and Using Herbs, “This garden…has become one of the most influential gardens in American horticulture,” and he deemed it “a horticultural legacy.” As Joan Janssen wrote in a poem for the 65th anniversary,“How many lives did this garden touch? How many more live herbal lives as such?” How many indeed? Reflecting on our members, the gardens, and the bright future they represent, the words of Thomas Jefferson, writing in 1811, seem appropriate,“...though I am an old man, I am but a young gardener.” The future of our organization is in the hands of the future gardeners and members who hold to the values of the past, but always look to the future. This publication of The Best of The Herbarist is a small sampling of what the 70+ years of this publication contain! We salute the past and launch the next 75 years! Anne Abbott, President 2006-2008

The Best of The Herbarist Committee Members Caroline Amidon is a past president of The Herb Society of America, and has been a fully active member, including holding various offices in The Philadelphia Unit. In addition to lecturing about pelargoniums, Caroline and Joyce Brobst (with whom she holds an HSA collection) have published several articles about them in The Herbarist and in Green Scene. They also collaborated with Pat Crocker on a book, Pelargonium, 2006 Herb of the Year. Caroline is a member of the International Geranium Society, the Hardy Plant Society, The Pennsylvania Horticultural Society and two garden clubs, The Green Valleys Association, a watershed conservation organization; and she serves on her township’s Planning Commission. She has received two awards from The Herb Society of America; The Helen de Conway Little Medal of Honor, and The Nancy Putnam Howard Award for Excellence in Horticulture. Joyce Brobst, from Reading, Pennsylvania, holds B.S. and M.Ed. degrees in Biology from Bloomsburg University, and a M.S. degree in Education from Marywood College. She is a past president of The Herb Society of America and has been a member of the Pennsylvania Heartland Unit for twentythree years. Teaching (part-time) environmental science, biology, and botany at the Reading Area Community College in Reading, PA, keeps Joyce involved with reading, lecturing, and researching a variety of topics. In recent years, she has been honored with inclusion in Who’s Who Among America’s Teachers for 2005, and an invitation to participate in The Oxford University Round Table on Science and Religion in 2007. She received The Helen de Conway Little Medal of Honor from The Herb Society of America in 2006. Joyce has contributed articles for The Herbarist over the years, and worked on Pelargonium, Herb of the Year 2006 with Pat Crocker and Caroline Amidon. (continued on next page)

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The Best of The Herbarist Committee Members Loretta Clements has been a member of HSA for 15 years. She was a founding member of the Tampa Bay Unit and served as membership, finance and unit chairman. She has served two terms on the HSA Board of Directors as Southeast District Membership Delegate. Loretta is a member at large from Brandon, FL, where she teaches workshops and classes on herbs and is an active Hillsborough County, Florida, Master Gardener. Lucille Dressler joined HSA in 1985 and is a member of the New England Unit. Her special interests are the history of herbs, HSA and the many books written by members. She collects books by the “herb ladies from 1900 to about 1970—Webster, Clarkson, Stearns, Rhode, Fox, Foster and bulletins from various HSA units.” Lucille is in charge of the New England Unit’s library and archives at the Massachussetts Horticultural Society in Wellesley. Kathryn Giarratani is a Master Gardener with the Phipps Garden Center, and a past chair of the Western Pennsylvania Unit of the Herb Society of America. She lives in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on the edge of Frick Park, and is an avid bird-watcher and close observer of nature. A member of HSA for fifteen years, Kathryn has traveled widely in Europe and especially in the United Kingdom. This experience broadens her appreciation of gardening, as well as her appreciation for the use and enjoyment of herbs. She has a special interest in urban herb gardens. Mary Ober has been a member of the Potomac Unit since 1981 and was chairman from 1986-1990. She was Corresponding Secretary, a member of the Planning Committee and of the President’s Advisory Committee in 1988. She was awarded the HSA Certificate of Achievement in 1997. Mary initiated a Salvia collection for HSA’s Plant Collection Program with Pat Kenny and Diana Arney. In 1995 Mary received the Elly Doyle Park Service Award in recognition of her contribution to the Park Systems of Fairfax County, including designing the herb garden at Green Springs Horticultural Center, preparing a research paper that became the plan for an authentic kitchen garden at Gunston Hall Plantation, and developing an herb garden at Meadowlark Regional Park.

From the Communications Chair

which were then combined and sent to the entire committee for the final selection.

As your communications chair, it is my privilege to have had a hand in helping deliver this project to our HSA members. I feel like a concertmaster directing the orchestra. What virtuosos we have had on this committee. In my eyes, they are all first chair musicians, as each one enthusiastically accepted and supported the challenge. The committee consisted of HSA past presidents, former Herbarist editors, members of the board, members with a special interest in The Society’s history and those gifted with words. They also represented all districts within The Society. Thank you, committee members. Please stand and take a bow for the time you took to note your comments, for challenging us, and for meeting all the deadlines!

And for making it come together in one beautiful package, our gratitude is extended to our HSA Editor, Robin Siktberg. Robin kept the project moving along, kept the communication lines open between all of us and was integral in the planning stages throughout the project. Her passion for journalism, design and layout, as well as researching current botanical nomenclature is quite an accomplishment. And Libby Armstrong’s eye for design makes the issue a visual treat.

alk about being in the right place at the right time! That is exactly how I feel about the Best of The Herbarist project. It is all about timing. For several years, your board of directors has discussed the possibility of such a project. It took several years for us to finally put all the pieces together. And come together they did! Right here, in just the right time, to celebrate The Herb Society of America’s 75th anniversary.

What was the committee’s charge? To take more than 70 years of scholarly and popular use articles and select the “top” ones which signified botany and horticulture, use and delight, and HSA’s history. This was no easy challenge. Each committee member started by reading five years of articles. They made their top recommendations,

As Horticulture Chairman of the Dominion Valley Garden Club, Mary promoted erosion control, wildflower conservation and recycling efforts. (continued on next page) The Herbarist i Issue 74 2008

We also challenged our membership to submit original artwork, photography or other media that would be selected for the front and back covers of this special edition. Sixteen entries were submitted by HSA members. They were displayed at the 2007 Educational Conference and Annual Meeting of Members in Scottsdale, AZ, and attendees voted for the finalists. The winners were selected at the HSA Board of Directors meeting in October, 2007.

Please join me in saying thank you to everyone who had their hand in making this project possible. Members, board, staff, advertisers and of course the authors—I thank you for helping us deliver The Best of The Herbarist in honor of The Herb Society of America’s 75th anniversary. Linda Lain, HSA Communications Chair 2002-2008

From the EDITOR

hat a treat to get to work on a project such as this! What a challenge, as well. How to choose from the many, many excellent articles from more than seven decades of The Herbarist? This issue is nearly twice as large as our usual annual issue, and could easily have been much larger. The selection committee found this to be a pleasurable, but very tough job. One reviewer commented, “King Solomon never had to make as difficult a decision as the one you presented to me…all the issues of The Herbarist you sent were crammed with informative articles.” Most reviewers, although requested to select just three articles in the first go-around, submitted five or more recommendations, resulting in several dozen runners-up. The articles were left in their original form and have not been edited, with the exception of correcting typographical or grammatical errors. Where a meaning seemed unclear, words in brackets have been inserted. There were other special challenges with this issue; the main ones were converting all those articles into electronic format, updating botanical nomenclature and finding illustrations.

The Best of The Herbarist Committee Members The first of these was solved by the nice people at Kinkos with the text-scanning software. The other two were a bit more timeconsuming. The botanical names were checked against the USDA ARS GRIN Taxonomy for Plants database, the most up-to-date resource for the ever-changing nomenclature. Updates are noted in footnotes at the bottom of the page.

Elizabeth M. Postell (Bam to everyone) grew up in Milwaukee, then spent the rest of her life in Chicago. She studied music and English literature and spent a few years in offices and teaching. She loves making gardens, reading about, writing and teaching about them, and found her real job chairing the large Hyde Park Garden Fair for 23 years. Bam became a member of the Northern Illinois Unit in 1978 and served in various unit and national offices, including acting as chief editor of The Herbarist, 1990-1991. She was awarded HSA’s Certificate of Appreciation in 1998.

Since the first six decades of The Herbarist contained very few illustrations, images were gathered from HSA members, the HSA Archives and other sources. Where possible, the original artwork was used.

Flavia Redelmeier is a Life Member of The Herb Society of America. She was a member of The Southern Ontario Unit until its dissolution, and is now a member at large in the Great Lakes District. She was a member of the HSA Board of Directors and Recording Secretary from 198286, and compiler of unit and member essays on phenology, the study of climate on horticultural growth patterns.

Bibliographic style has changed over the years, and varies tremendously within these articles. Rather than change them all to conform to our current style, a nearly impossible task, the bibliographies have been largely left as-is. My only regret is for those articles we could not include. So, sit back with a cup of herbal tea and enjoy a slice of history. Happy Anniversary! Robin Siktberg, Editor

Jo Sellers, a member of the Potomac Unit since 1988, has lived 15 miles from the heart of Washington, D.C. in Burke, VA, for over half of her life. In 2003, she was honored to receive HSA’s Certificate of Appreciation. Jo has served as the Southeast Membership Delegate and as the Mid-Atlantic Membership Delegate on the HSA Board of Directors as well as chairman of her unit. Jo’s passion is herb gardening with children. Phyllis Sidorsky, an HSA member since 1971, has written articles for The Herbarist over the years and continues to contribute a column for “The Potomac Potpourri” on matters horticultural. She also contributes her watercolors for the Potomac Unit’s fund raisers. Her garden and home have been shown during Virginia Garden Week, the Alexandria Christmas Walk and have appeared in Early American Home’s Garden issue. Phyllis is the author of the article “Betty Rea Remembers: Recollections on the Founding of the National Herb Garden,” on page 82 of this magazine. Robin Siktberg has been the editor and horticulturist for The Herb Society of America for 11 years. Prior to this, she was the horticulturist at the Cleveland Botanical Garden where she managed the development of the gardens and taught horticulture classes. Robin edits The Herbarist and the newsletter. Her writing and photography have appeared in The Herb Companion, The Plain Dealer and Cleveland Magazine, as well as in several books. Robin has a B.S. in Agricultural Communications/Horticulture from The Ohio State University.

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75 years of •

Mrs. Edward B. Cole was noted for her insatiable curiosity, and was the second HSA president

•

Mrs. George C. Bratenahl designed The Society’s seal and defined an herb as “a plant which may be used for Physic, Fragrance or Flavor”

Lois Sutton, Ph.D. Vice-President 2006-2008

ociety members are fortunate to have had two volumes of history published for us. Priscilla Sawyer Lord told us stories of the first fifty years. Dorothy Spencer provided further information for that time period and took us up to 1993. The tone of the books is different, but both books were published by The Society, both tell us about our founding and list operational details, and both tell us about the mission of the HSA and its members’ activities. This preface serves to highlight the Founder’s ideals and how The Society has carried out their vision. Six Boston-area women, accomplished gardeners and students of herbs, wanted to learn more about botany and horticulture. While varied in age and background, they studied as a group with Dr. Edgar Anderson, a Harvard faculty member at The Arnold Arboretum. He supplied laboratory space and botanical lessons and in exchange learned more about herbs from them. A short time later, another woman was invited to join this group to complete the roster of HSA’s seven founders. The women’s experiences led them to agree that there should be “a new society whose intent and pursuit was to be the study and research of herbs.” The seven included: •

Mrs. Albert Burrage, Jr. was The Society’s first president

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•

Mrs. Ferris Greenslet grew extensive fields of herbs and used many as dyes

•

Mrs. Laurence Brown arranged for the botany class and served as the record keeper

•

Mrs. Charles L. Norton maintained a still room at her home.

•

Mrs. Edwin L. Mitchell provided financial expertise for the group.

The Founders focused on studying and sharing herbal knowledge with others who were interested in the horticultural, botanical or utilitarian phases of herb growing. Their early accomplishments have given us a challenging path to follow: The topic of their first lesson with Dr. Anderson was on preparation of herbarium specimens. By1938 the collection had grown to 500 species and varieties representing 210 genera and was presumed to be the first specialized collection of its kind in the country. The herbarium collection was donated by The Society to The Arnold Arboretum in 1967, and it contained several thousand specimens. We were again taught how to make herbarium

sheets at the 2004 Educational Conference in Cleveland, Ohio, and the 2007 Grant for Educators award supported a young teacher’s use of herbarium sheets in the youth educational programs at the Reedy Creek Nature Center in Charlotte, North Carolina. The Herbarist, first appearing in 1935, was to serve as an outlet for herbal research for members and non-members as well as a mechanism of communication and education to members who were not able to attend The Society’s study meetings. The Society has published The Herbarist annually, changing it in size and appearance, but not its excellent content. The website is a newer addition to the mechanism by which distant members may appreciate herbal research. Herb Society of America Guides to several “Herbs of the Year” have been developed through compiling information from herbal experts who themselves are scattered around the country. Tussie-mussies have an influential place in The Society’s gaining of garden space in public venues (See also Chapter Six, Spencer) “…with a tussie mussie in her hand, Mrs. Burrage approached the chairman of Boston’s Parks Department.” By mid-1935 there was an HSA herb garden in Franklin Park in Boston, Massachusetts. Another garden soon followed in Harvard’s Gray Arboretum in1937 and at that time Mrs. Burrage commented,“I hope some day we have an herb garden in the National Arboretum.”

Following the vision The history of the National Herb Garden is fascinating and involved many HSA presidents, many members and even a change in the Federal government such that private money could be given for a specific project (credit to Mrs. Andrew Jyurovat, president from 1974-1976. ) With not just one, but baskets of tussie-mussies, Mrs. Edward Rea (president from 1976-1978) successfully lobbied Congress and the Appropriations Subcommittee of Agriculture, Rural and Related Agencies to provide Federal funds enabling the building of the National Herb Garden. The Herb Society of America’s gift to the American people was dedicated on June 12, 1980. More recently, the efforts of the National Herb Garden Committee resulted in the 2007 publication of The Herb Society of America’s Essential Guide to Growing and Cooking with Herbs. Of special note: While many early gardens associated with The Society are no longer in existence, an herb garden designed by one of the Founders, Florence Bratenahl, which was planted in 1935 at the Bishop’s Garden on the grounds of the National Cathedral, may still be visited. Mrs. Hammond Crawford (president from 1950-1952) envisioned a larger place for The Society—one of promoting world peace,“working with herbs and the good earth.” In 2006, The Society endorsed the Center for Plant Conservation’s voluntary code of conduct to reduce or prevent the spread of invasive plants. In 2007 the introduction of a new botany and

horticulture program, Native Herbal Plant Conservation began. Both of these efforts speak directly to Mrs. Crawford’s sense of herbs and the good earth. Meetings of members have been at the center of HSA activities. The first year of The Society was so busy that it was with surprise the Founders realized there had not been an annual meeting! Society members met at Horticulture Hall in Boston in March 1935, to correct that oversight. The Educational Conference and Annual Meeting of Members in 1997 added an official educational conference component to the meetings. Annual meetings continue to serve as the business meeting of members, to provide educational content and often, the opportunity to visit local gardens. HSA members continue to supply the networking and informal herbal education that also take place. The Society added symposia to its educational activities for the public, presenting four events in the early 1990s. The 1996 reorganization of the Board of Directors defined seven regional membership districts. District gatherings create yet another opportunity for herb gardeners and aficionados to meet and share their studies and experiences.

Please tell all the members to throw their CARAWAY and be CUMIN to Cleveland in 1953. It’s SAGE to do it, they’ll never RUE it. We promise you CHERVIL have aNISE THYME. Please be MULLEIN it over. LOVAGE, Western Reserve Herb Society

References Lord, Priscilla Sawyer. The History of The Herb Society of America 1933–1983. The Herb Society of America, 1983. Spencer, Dorothy G. The Herb Society of America 1933–1993, A History. The Herb Society of America, Inc., 1995. Unknown. Founders’ Herb Garden Book of Rememberance [sic]. Wenham Museum, Wenham, MA, 1956. Unknown editor.“History and Purpose.” 2005 Membership Directory. The Herb Society of America, Inc.

Lest we view our history too seriously, The Society’s motto,“For Use and For Delight” adds a lighter note to the study of herbs. Delight often implies humor and in closing, I offer this play on words from the call to the 1953 Annual Meeting of Members: 7

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Best

CONTENTS

OF THE

HERBAL FOLKLORE

BOARD OF DIRECTORS Anne Abbott, President Lois Sutton, Ph.D., Vice-President Linda Lain, Secretary/Communications Gretchen Faro, Treasurer/Finance & Operations Ann Brokamp, Central Membership Delegate Susan Liechty, Great Lakes Membership Delegate Jo Sellers, Mid-Atlantic Membership Delegate Usha Palaniswamy, Ph.D., Northeast Membership Delegate Mary Doebbeling, South Central Membership Delegate Debbie Boutelier, Southeast Membership Delegate Marilyn Filipek, West Membership Delegate Susan Betz, Education Chair Gloria McClure, Botany & Horticulture Chairperson Peggy Rados, Membership Chairperson

The Great Dittany of Crete: Then and Now . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 By Dorothy Bovee Jones • 1973 Righte Dittany. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 By Harriet Addams Brown • 1935 Dittany Redivivus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 By Anne Burrage • 1936 Algonquin Ashes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 By Dorothy Wade • 1956 Mistletoe, Magic and Medicine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 By Dr. Leo C. Kanner • 1967 The Scarlet Letter: Deadly Nightshade, Dogwood and Henbane . . 29 By Lee Applebaum •1986 Harvesting an Herbal Tradition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 By Donna A. Gerbosi-DiFulvio • 1999

Deborah Winter, Development Chairperson Susan Liechty, Nominating Chairperson James Duke, Ph.D., Honorary President ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF Katrinka Morgan — Executive Director Laurie Alexander — Development Associate Libby Armstrong — Design Consultant Wendy Daugherty — Executive Administrator Karen Frandanisa — Accountant Mike Meyers — Webmaster Cecilia Serdio — Membership Liaison Robin A. Siktberg — Editor/Horticulturist Helen Tramte — Librarian The Best of the Herbarist Editor: Robin A. Siktberg

THE TAXONOMY AND SCIENCE OF HERBS Lavender, Spike and Lavandin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 By Dr. Arthur O. Tucker • 1985 Origanums Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 By Elizabeth Rollins • 1989 Some Lesser-Known Culinary Alliums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 By Peter Hanelt • 1991 Those Herbs Called Chervils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 By Helen Noyes Webster • 1947

Design: Libby Armstrong Printer: Xpress Printing The Best of the Herbarist Committee Linda Lain – Chair, Anne Abbott, Caroline Amidon, Joyce Brobst, Loretta Clements, Lucille Dressler, Elizabeth Eagan, Kathryn Giarratani, Marilyn Kushner, Mary Ober, Elizabeth Postell, Flavia Redelmeier, Jo Sellers, Phyllis Sidorsky, Robin Siktberg The opinions expressed by contributors are not necessarily those of The Society. Manuscripts, advertisements, comments and letters to the editor may be sent to: The Herbarist, The Herb Society of America 9019 Kirtland-Chardon Rd. Kirtland, Ohio 44094 (440) 256-0514 phone • (440) 256-0541 fax e-mail: editor@herbsociety.org website: www.herbsociety.org

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TASTEFUL HERBS A Profusion of Infusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 By Fairman R. Jayne • 1962 The Caper Bush. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 By Robert E. Bond • 1990 From Acadian to Cajun: A Taste of Louisiana Foods and Seasonings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 By Madalene Hill and Gwen Barclay • 2001 8

THE HISTORY AND GARDENS OF HSA Dedication of the Founder’s Herb Garden at Wenham, Massachusetts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Author Unknown • 1957 The Herb Society of America: A Kaleidoscopic View of the First 50 Years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 By Priscilla Sawyer Lord • 1983 Betty Rea Remembers: Recollections on the Founding of the National Herb Garden. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 By Phyllis Sidorsky • 1999

HERBS FOR PLEASURE AND USE Indigo: The True Blue. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 By Martha Genung Stearns • 1939 Milkweed at the Front. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Author Unknown • 1945 Early American Dyeing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 By E. McD. Schetky • 1955 Native American Herbs of Flavor and Fragrance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 By Dr. Arthur O. Tucker • 1990 Creating an Herbal Standard. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 By Elise Felton • 1990

HISTORY OF MEDICINAL HERBS Medicinals of Plant Origin: Past and Present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 By William D. Foye • 1977 Nicholas Culpeper 1616-1654: Correcting the Record . . . . . . . . . 114 By Portia Meares • 1993

Inside front cover: Photo of nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus) by Robin Siktberg.

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By Sydenham S. Edwards for the Curtis Botanical Magazine. Courtesy of the National Agricultural Library, ARS, USDA

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Together, the three articles provide insight into an interesting and ancient plant species and a window into a bit of HSA history as well. — Robin Siktberg

The Great Dittany of Crete:

Then and Now

Dorothy Bovee Jones • 1973 There were several interesting plants in bloom on the wide south windowsill in the library, enjoying winter sunshine indoors. But whenever a newcomer entered that room, he looked past the rose geranium with its lavender flowers, past the alpine strawberry, covered with flowers and fruit, and asked,“What is that plant?” The object of interest was the dittany of Crete, a charming plant with small, round, gray leaves of soft, velvety texture and trailing stems. A delicate and graceful plant, it carries with distinction the weight of a recorded history of nearly 4,000 years. The dittany of Crete is one of the most famous healing herbs of all time, and has been mentioned by so many classical writers that, as Harriet Addams Brown wrote in the 1935 Herbarist, “Their names read like a catalogue of a classical library of the Golden Age.” Endemic to the rocky summits of Mount Ida and Mount Dicte in Crete, the dittany grows nowhere else in the world. Virgil writes that Venus gave the plant power to heal. I like the direct translation from the Latin better than the Dryden verse so often quoted: [In the myth] Aeneas has been severely wounded; his attendants cannot dislodge the heavy arrow stuck deep in his shoulder. His men are on the verge of panic. Virgil writes:“But now Venus, stricken by the unmerited agony of her dear son, plucked dittany, growing on Cretan Ida; dittany, a stalk bearing downy leaves and crowned by glowing blossoms, well known to the wild goats when swift arrows have lodged in their flanks. This Venus brought, concealing herself in a dark cloud, and steeped it in the water poured into a shining basin, secretly giving it power to heal. She sprinkled in it the potent juices and fragrant remedy of ambrosia. With that water, aged Iapyx washed the wounds, little knowing its

magic power. Suddenly, all pain fled from Aeneas’ body, and the blood ceased utterly to flow from the dreadful wound. And now, with none to force it, the arrow dropped out into Iapyx’ hand, and Aeneas’ newborn strength was as of old. A wall painting in Pompeii depicts this scene, with Venus bringing dittany to the priest-physician. Dittany has won most of its fame by its power to draw out iron. If a goat pierced by an arrow eats it, the arrowheads drop out, and the wounds close and heal. Knowledge of this herb was attributed to the hind, “for she eateth of it that she may calve easier and soon; if she is hurt by an arrow, she seeketh this herb and eateth it, which pulleth the iron out of the wound.” Dittany leaves, in a draught of water, were believed to ease difficult labor in childbirth. The root, used in a salve, relieved the pain of sciatica, and the juice in wine cured snakebite. Dittany was an ingredient in the famous Mithridates antidote, and Charlemagne had it. Theophrastus, in the second century B.C. and Dodoens and Gerard, in the sixteenth century A.D. all said that dittany looked like pennyroyal. It does not resemble either of the pennyroyals that I know, though there is some similarity in the fragrance. Magical powers were attributed to this herb. Rufinus writes that a snake, thrown into a pit surrounded by burning wool, with only one exit, and that exit closed by a branch of dittany, will allow itself to be burned to death rather than cross that herb. Theophrastus says that the virtue of dittany is perceived as soon as it is taken into the mouth, as even a small piece has a warming effect. I can testify to this. Once, when I was suffering from a very sore throat, I looked at a flourishing plant of dittany on my bedroom Continued on page 12 11

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The next three articles all tell the story of Origanum dictamnus, Dittany of Crete. Both Harriet Addams Brown and Dorothy Bovee Jones tell of the history of the plant and its folklore, several thousand years old. In her article, Anne Burrage, one of the founding members of HSA, describes the unlikely story of one small dittany plant making its way (in the basket of HSA member Mrs. Ellery Sedgwick) across mountains and an ocean to produce its kind on another continent.

Origanum dictamnus. Photo by Steven Foster

windowsill. With this healing herb right at hand, why did I not try it? I picked three leaves and ate them, and in less than an hour, my throat was no longer sore, and my newborn strength was as of old. From classical times, through the Middle Ages, into the Renaissance, the great interest in this plant remained constant. In 1398 Trevisia said,“Dictamnus so grate virtue hath that it dryeth and pulleth iron out of the body.” In 1546, Langley said,“The hart stricken with an arrow driveth it out with dittany.” Michael Drayton (1563-1631) “the fairies’ poet,” wrote:

the side of the Commonwealth.” Bishop Hall, in 1624, said,“The shaft sticks in thee! None but the Sovereign Dittany of the Saviour’s righteousness can drive it out.” Through the years, the virtues of dittany of Crete have been erroneously ascribed to the gas plant (Dictamnus fraxinella1). When the error became known, the gas plant was called the “bastard dittany,” a great pity because the gas plant is a handsome addition to the herb garden and full of interest in its own right.

There are only two recorded culinary uses of this herb. The bracts and flowers were thought to make a good tea, and in Saxon kitchens it was used as an ingredient in a sauce to be used with fish. In combination with parsley, garlic, thyme, salt and pepper, it added a pleasant, aromatic flavor.

A hundred years ago, the only knowledge of the history of Greece was obtained from Greek mythology, especially from the great poems of Homer, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Everything before 800 B.C. was regarded as legend. In his History of Greece, published in 1846, George Grote wrote,“I begin the history of Greece with the first recorded Olympiad, of 776, B.C. historical records do not begin until after that date, and for the 200 years following it, attested facts are very rare. The times that I set apart from history are discernible only through poetry and legend.”

Through the years, dittany took on an abstract significance, as well. Sir Edward Digby, in 1623, said, “We shall receive from his Royal Hand that Dictamen which must expel divers arrows that hang on

Two men coming along in the nineteenth century were going to change all that: Heinrich Schliemann, by his excavations in Troy, and Sir Arthur Evans, with his excavations on the island of Crete.

And this is Dictum which we prize Shots, shafts and darts expelling --The Muse’s Elizium

When did this plant, so eminent in folklore, disappear from the scene? From classical times, through the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, through Elizabethan and Victorian England, interest in dittany was very much alive. It was a well-loved plant in English cottage windows— Continued on page 14

Now Dictamnus albus

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At Knossos, Evans brought to light the fabulous Palace of Minos, which emerged from the earth glowing with beautiful, sensuous, rich color, blues, greens, russet reds, painted on smooth plaster. Some of the frescoes at Knossos showed human scenes, groups of highly bred ladies and gentlemen at social gatherings. There were also pictures of flowers, birds and butterflies. In one of the frescoes, called the Partridge fresco, Evans identified the dittany of Crete. This fresco is pictured in the 1937 issue of The Herbarist, and is the earliest known picture of the dittany of Crete, from the early Minoan period. This discovery pushed back the recorded history of the plant by over a thousand years. In another fresco the dittany is shown in detail. Sir Arthur sought the living plant himself, and found it, growing in almost inaccessible rocky crevices above the Cave of Shavony. He said that the round, woolly leaves answered Virgil’s description, and that the women wreathed with it the images of Artemis.

Harriet Addams Brown • 1935 One of the most interesting phases of herb growing is the struggle to secure for our modern gardens authentic species of the herbs mentioned in the old records. These may be found listed under many different names and wander from genus to genus to the complete mystification of the unwary. Dictamnus, or “Dittany” is one of the oldest of these medical herbs of mystery. Headed by Hippocrates himself, and including among the more familiar names Apuleius, Theophrastus, Dioscorides, Pliny, Plutarch, Cicero and Virgil, the long list of ancient sages who discussed the provenance and virtues of this Cretan Herb, reads like the catalogue of a classical library of the Golden Age.

writers seem to have agreed as to the appearance and properties of the plant, by the first quarter of the 16th century a note of botanical confusion creeps into the records. Caspar Bauhin, in his Theatri Botanici, Basle, 1523, at the end of a long list of Dictamnums, adds,“D. Albus Vulgo, Sive Fraxinella.” In 1548 William Turner writes: Dictamnus groweth in Cady and hath rounde, thick, rough leaves. I have not seen it growing but dry oft. It may be had in Venice and in Antwerp. Some abuse for this “Fraxinella.” Dictamnus may be named in English “Righte Dittany.” Twenty years later he triumphantly writes,“I have seen Dittany growing in England in Maister Riches garden naturally, but it groweth nowhere else that I know saving only in Cady.”

Theophrastus (Sir A. Hort’s translation) has perhaps the most comprehensive description. Dittany is peculiar to Crete. This plant is marvellous in virtue and is useful for many purposes… Its leaf is like Penny-royal, to which it also bears some resemblance in taste, but the twigs are slenderer. They use the leaves, not the twigs nor the fruit… The leaf is useful… above all against difficult labour in women… It is given as a draught in water. It is a scarce plant, for the region which bears it is not extensive, and the goats graze it down because they are fond of it. The story of the arrows is said to be true—that if goats eat it when they have been shot it rids them of the arrow. This, then, is Dittany and such its properties. The virtue of Dittany is perceived directly it is taken into the mouth, for a small piece has a warming effect. Virgil’s description is the most vivid in the famous passage which tells of Venus helping to heal the wound of Æneas: A branch of healing Dittany she brought Which in the Cretan fields with care she sought. Rough is the stem, which woolly leaves surround. The leaves with flowers, the flowers with purple crowned. Well known to goats; a sure relief To draw the pointed steel and ease the grief.

---Æneid, Bk. XII. (Dryden)

The classical belief in the medicinal properties of Dittany continued for generations, but while the old 1

He also states: Lepidum is called in English “Dittani,” but foolishly and unlearnedly. In Duche “Pepperkrout,” that is, “Pepper-wort,” because it is so exceedynge hote, which name were more fitter in English for this herb than the name of “Dittani.”That the name of “Dittani” might abyde proper unto ye “Righte Dittano” which begynneth now to be set and sowen in England. The Hortus Kewensis confirms Turner, and lists “Dittany of Crete” as “cultivated in 1551 by Mr. John Riche.” The Hortus also records it as “Cretan Marjoram, cultivated by Mr. John Gerard.” In 1764 Linnaeus, in his Genera Plantarum, referring to Bauhin, removed Dittany from the genus Dictamnum to the genus Origanum, and we may find our herb from that time on listed as Origanum dictamnus, L. Thanks, however, to the research of the distinguished archaeologist, Sir Arthur Evans, whose excavations in Crete have turned fairy tale to fact,“Righte Dittany” has received still further proof of identity and we can stand firm against the usurping claims made by the bastard dittany, Dictamnus fraxinella1, to the heritage of centuries of lore and legend which rightfully belongs to Origanum dictamnus. Sir Arthur Evans has unearthed a fresco in Crete, near the ancient town of Knossos. Once it decorated Continued on page 14

Now Dictamnus albus

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Herbal Folklore

Righte Dittany

The Great Dittany of Crete

Righte Dittany (continued from page 13) the walls of what he has named “The Caravanserai,” an ancient rest house of the middle Minoan period, that unbelievable era of civilization of 1500 B.C. It is a frieze of birds, perched on bushes and plants. One of these plant forms so closely resembles Dictamnus as described by the ancient writers, and is so similar to the plant now growing on the rocky Cretan cliffs, that we may feel quite confident that here is what must be the earliest extant picture of this “literary celebrity” among herbs, famous down the ages as the “Marvellous healing herb of Crete,” and still called “Diktamno” by the Cretan peasants. Sir Arthur describes the living plant, which he found in the crevices of the rocks as having “Round leaves like Penny-royal… lilac-veined and covered with soft, downy hairs, answering Virgil’s description. The flower which emerges from a cluster of overlapping bracts is labiate, and is also of a delicate purple hue.” Both this description and the fresco itself are corroborated by the unique specimen of Origanum dictamnus now in the Gray Herbarium of Harvard University, which was collected in 1846 by Theodor Von Heldreich, Director of the Botanic Garden at Athens. Except for comparative scale, which was an unimportant point with early decorators, the shape of the leaves and the habit of growth of the painted plant leave little doubt but that in these prehistoric fragments we have a vindication of the identity of Dittany and a record that gives us an unbroken plant pedigree for over three thousand years. The restoration of this historic plant to common knowledge and its propagation on these alien shores would be an interesting and worth-while project for those members of the Herb Society who “delight in looking backward.”

Bibliography A. Musa: Apuleius Barbarus. Meursius: Greta, Lib. II, p. 109. Caspar Bauhin: Theatri Botanici, Basle, 1523. William Turner: The Names of Herbs, 1548. Herball, 1568. William Coles: Adam in Eden, 1657. Gerard: Herball. Joannes Raids: Plantarum Historiam. John Quincy, M.D.: A Compleat English Dispensatory, 1749. Woodville: Medical Botany Supplement, 1779. Kniphof: Botanica in Originali, 1758. Zorn: Icones Pl. Med., 1779. Curtis: Botanical Magazine, 1795, Vol. IX. Sir Arthur Evans: Palace of Minos, Vol. II, Part r.

(continued from page 12)

almost as popular as the then-fragrant musk. By the eighteenth century, the dried herb was being imported, in England, for medicinal uses. Sometime after Victorian days, people who had come to know the dittany’s story through the writings of Homer, Hippocrates, Apuleius, Aristotle, Theophrastus, Cicero, Dioscorides, Virgil, Plutarch and Pliny, must have come to realize that this historic plant was nowhere to be seen. By the time The Herb Society of America was founded, the dittany of Crete was definitely “lost.” In the 1935 issue of The Herbarist, Harriet Addams Brown writes in her article,“The Righte Dittany” (Turner’s name for it) as follows: “The restoration of this historic plant to common knowledge, and its propagation on these alien shores would be an interesting and worthwhile project for those members of The Herb Society of America who ‘delight in looking backward’.” In the same year, Henry Beston wrote in Herbs and the Earth: “Some day, perhaps, a lost herb or two will come again into human life. Who will bring us, from Cretan hillsides, an interesting and worthwhile project for those members of dittany of the Greek Anthology, Origanum dictamnus? A lovely and fragrant plant, dear to gods and earth-wandering men?” In 1764, Linneaus had removed the dittany from Dictamnun to the genus Origanum. It remained Origanum dictamnus until [approx.]1956 when it became officially Amaracus dictamnus, although botanists were still calling it by the Linnean designation2. To go back to our lost dittany. In 1935, Mrs. Albert C. Burrage, Jr., of Ipswich Mass., one of the founders of The Herb Society of America, heard that her neighbor, Mrs. Ellery Sedgwick of Beverly, Mass., was going to Greece. Mrs. Burrage called on her, and asked her to “try to bring us some dittany.” Mrs. Sedgwick was a distinguished horticulturalist, and when she returned in the autumn, she did indeed have with her a root of dittany, in a damp tissue, which had crossed the Atlantic in her handbag. She had picked it at Knossos, near the site of Sir Arthur’s excavations. At that time, plants were being sold at the Wenham, (Massachusetts) Exchange. Mrs. Burrage gave the root to the gardener to propagate and care for. I like to think that all the dittany of Crete plants in this country today are descendants of Mrs. Sedgwick’s root. An Herb Society member, Caroline Weir Ely, did a charming etching 2

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The name is currently Origanum dictamnus.

And what about this dittany of Crete today? It is being grown commercially in one place in Crete, but as a wild flower, it is on the verge of extinction. In every place where it grows it is being collected on such a large scale that it has almost disappeared. The beauty of the plant, the healing powers with which it has been endowed, the belief today that it is a cure for gastric troubles, all combine to make it highly desirable to the Greek peasants, and herbalists who gather it ruthlessly. In addition to the devastation of the fields by humans, animals, too, are “grazing it down,” whether they have iron in their flanks or not. The simple fact is that they like to eat it because it tastes good. The dittany of Crete seems to be in danger of being “lost” again. Certainly it is more difficult for me to grow than it ever has been, and my experience is not unique. If you have a plant, treasure it, and propagate it. Cuttings take root easily. If you do not have a plant, buy one. Plant it in a soil mixture of one half good garden loam, onequarter leaf mould, and one-quarter coarse sand. Keep it moist all through the growing and blooming season (from spring to fall). The dittany blooms in July. When it is brought indoors (in cold climates) for the winter season, water more sparingly, but do not let it dry out. This is its rest period. Eleanour Rohde advises cutting back the branches one-third of their length in March, and spraying it with water every day until new growth appears. Keep it out of the sun until it is established, and then give it all the sun there is.

Two dittanys surprised me one year by surviving the cold of a Pennsylvania winter outdoors. I had planted them in the herb garden in the spring, and forgot to take them indoors with the potted dittanys in the fall. In the spring, both plants were flourishing, with a fine growth of leaves. Turner considered the plant hardy in the open ground in England, and Gerard said that his plants blossomed and set seed outdoors, but perished the next winter. He notes that Dioscorides “writeth against all truth” when he says that in his garden it never set seed. I have to agree with Dioscorides, because I have never been able to find a single seed on any of my plants, although they bloom profusely. Gerard also says that the very smell of dittany “driveth away venomous beasts and doth astonish them.” He says it “prevails against all wounds, especially those made with envenomed weapons, and arrows shot out of guns, and is very profitable for Chirurgians in sea and land wars, to carry with them to have in readiness; it draweth forth also splinters of wood, bones or suchlike.”

Bibliography

In my experience, the dittany of Crete is happier as a pot plant all the year. Even if we never need its services to draw out iron, the graceful beauty of the plant, and its lovely fragrance, are reasons enough to try hard to keep it growing. It is a bit of human history in one’s hand.

Rains, Johannes. Plantarum Historicum.

Barbarrus, Apuleius. Crete-Lib. 11, p. 109. Bauhin, Caspar. Theatri Botanici. Basle: 1523. Botanical Magazine, IX (1795), text to Plate 298. Brown, Harriet Addams.“Righte Dittany.” The Herbarist, 1935. Burrage, Anne.“Dittany Redivivus.” The Herbarist, 1936. Coles, William. Adam in Eden. 1657. Curtis Botanical Magazine, Vol. LX, 1795. Evans, Sir Arthur. Palace of Minos. London: Macmillan, Vol. II, Goulandris Bot. Museum, Athens: Wildflowers of Greece.1968. Hatton, Richard G. Craftsman’s Plant Book, Page 366. 1909. Kazantzakis, Nikos, Holiday Magazine, August 1955. Kniphof. Botanica in Originale. 1758. Quincy, John, M.D. A Compleat English Dispensatory. 1749.

Rufinus. Introduction to the Herbal, ed. by Lynn Thorndyke from 13th century Manuscript, p. XXV. 1946. Turner, William. The Names of Herbs. 1548. Herbal. 1568. Woodville. Medical Botany, Supplement. 1779. Wright, Janet.“From Cretan Hillsides.” The Herbarist, 1945. Zorn. Icones Pl. Med. 1779.

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of the first plant of the dittany grown in America. My print of it is a precious possession. It is the frontispiece in the 1937 Herbarist.

Dittany Redivivus Anne Burrage • 1936

In the 1935 issue of The Herbarist, at the end of an article on Origanum dictamnus L., the author suggested, as a worthwhile project, the introduction to American gardens of this historic herb. It can now be announced with pride that the “sacred healing herb of Crete” has arrived in this country. The following excerpt from a letter from Mrs. Ellery Sedgwick tells the story: When I left for a cruise in the Adriatic last summer I was asked to try and procure seeds of the true Dittany. This little herb is not known in this country and grows only on the hills in Crete. I laid my plans early and spoke to the Greek interpreter on our ship and also to the lady who helps run the cruise. After visiting the excavations and the Museum we arrived at Candia, the port of Knossos, at high noon—and alas, all the shops were closed for the inevitable siesta. Our Greek interpreter failed me in this crisis. Keeping the boatload of impatient people waiting, I bribed a man to see what he could do. Soon he arrived with a bunch of herbs, but I was sure they did not answer the description of the true Dittany. We put off for the ship and on getting aboard, to my joy, Mrs. Anderson presented me with a pot in which grew a little herb which I felt convinced was the Origanum dictamnus. She had visited a Cretan woman who had been her cook in New York and had now returned to Candia to live. Knowing the “ropes” this woman had procured in one of the provisions stores the only plant of Dittany which they had and which is used on the Island in flavoring drinks. The herb was some five inches high and had five or six little purple labiate flowers with

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protruding stamens at the end of its branches, and resembles exactly the pictures of the specimens of Dittany at the Gray Herbarium of Harvard. This little plant traveled on top of a basket from Patmos to Halicarnassus and from Rhodes to Malta, and other ports, and through France on the train. When the flowers fell, the bracts became very prominent at the ends of the branches. Nothing could discourage it and it put forth tiny round leaflets when I watered it, which I was told to do every two or three days. The sea voyage and neglect when at home had no effect on its vitality. It seemed to me to have the endurance and persistence of an age-long struggle for existence and its insignificant appearance belied its survival through some three thousand years. May it keep these persistent qualities among our richly cultivated and easily discouraged plant life.

Those of us who love herbs are deeply indebted to our good friend for her contribution of such an historic and legendary plant to our gardens, and it is hoped that, when another season has passed, there may be sufficient cuttings for further propagation. An additional note of interest has come in a letter from Mrs. G. C. F. Bratenahl of Washington, D.C., who writes: Shortly after hearing about this precious plant of the “Righte Dittany,” [the] lost Origanum dictamnus of Crete (see Mrs. Laurence A. Brown’s article, The Herbarist 1935) I came across an article by Eleanour Sinclair Rohde entitled “A Collection of Marjorams.” (Published in My

Garden, an English monthly, November 1934 issue.) After speaking of the more familiar varieties of this delightful herb family—those plants that look so “homely and comfortable” in any garden—Miss Rohde writes of Origanum dictamnus, the “Dittany of Crete ... sub-shrubby with downy foliage and pink flowers in August and September. This marjoram, which attains nearly a foot, needs a very warm spot. In Victorian times ‘Dittany of Crete’ was almost as favourite a window plant with cottagers as musk. It is an excellent plant for a cold greenhouse, provided the temperature in winter does not fall below 45 degrees. The compost should be two parts fibrous loam and one part silver sand and leaf mould. During the winter the plants need the minimum of water and as much sunlight as possible. O. dictamnus can be easily increased by cuttings taken in the spring and struck in sandy soil under a bell glass in the greenhouse...”

Who is familiar with another marjoram that Miss Rohde also includes in her “Collection?” “Origanum microphyllum: Marjoram Gentle.” It is not listed in Bailey’s Hortus, Mrs. M. Grieve’s Herbal, nor does Mrs. Webster mention it. Parkinson describes it with “heads hoary and soft” and Miss Rohde tells us that it has a “far sweeter scent than even Sweet Marjoram. Few aromatic plants have such an exquisite scent. Sweeter and yet also spicier than lavender with just a trace of heliotrope. It needs a light soil and a very sunny sheltered spot.” QUERY: Could this be, by any happy chance, that “intensely pungent dried marjoram, also from Crete” which accompanied the “lost Dittany” on its long, brave journey?

Dorothy Wade • 1956

ear the end of the ninth century A.D., Charlemagne became the first Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. The Golden Age of Harun-Al-Rashid was at its zenith and Baghdad was the center of a flourishing art. In far-off China, a monument was placed over the mouldering bones of Li-Po, whose singing words about beautiful moonfaced maidens and pink dust had added to the splendor of the Tsang dynasty, and in an unknown part of the world a sweeping, immense tragedy was obliterating the whole culture of a people. Continued on page 18 17

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Hamamelis sp. (witchhazel) was used as an emetic and cold remedy by the early inhabitants of Captain Kidd’s Cove. Photo by W. L. Wagner, courtesy Smithsonian Inst.

Dorothy Wade’s personal statement about the devastation wrought by man and time on a particularly beautiful place that has fallen beneath the bulldozers, expresses strongly the critical bonds that tie botany and the environment to our appreciation of the natural world. In a beautifully written account, Wade brings us to Captain Kidd’s Cove on the North Shore of Long Island. She sets the account in historical context by tracing the events and artifacts from ancient times through to her contemporary experience, and uses the knowledge and skill of an archaeologist to strike her theme sharply. The theme itself is timeless: We must husband nature’s beauty and diversity. Environmental damage can be irreversible, and the losses extend to the knowledge of cultures and history that have helped to define our society today. — Kathryn Giarratani

What that tragedy was, famine, war, pestilence or the elements in turmoil, no one knows. But final it was, and over the dead ashes of the fireplaces the winds of time laid down a shroud of earth and seeds and rains and snows until this dead place was hid from the eyes of man and beast for centuries. Then there came a time when the Black Death was ravaging Europe and Tamerlane was sweeping Asia before him. And another troop of wanderers on the other side of the earth found the place of the dead and buried fireplaces and started new fires. They remained there and established their village for a span of about five hundred years until, for reasons only surmised today, they too disappeared and left their fireplaces once more at the mercy of the elements. We don’t know what the place was named by these people, but today it has a name, and soon all that will remain will be the name. The place is nearly gone forever. Gone will be the ashes and artifacts of those ancient people who knew nothing of Charlemagne or who felt no fear of the Black Death. And gone will be every trace of those who cared not for Charlemagne or Harun-Al-Rashid or Li-Po. Gone will be every trace except a small heap of potsherds, stone implements and bone tools that can give at least a fragmentary history of this vanished race. Incongruous as it sounds, the name of this doomed piece of earth is Captain Kidd’s Cove. The area it comprises in relation to its aboriginal occupation is about thirty acres. It is situated on the North Shore of Long Island about halfway between the eastern and western ends of the island. Whether in fact or in fancy, a legend persists that one moonless night, the miscreant Kidd dropped anchor long enough in that

Trillium grandiflorum was used by Native Americans to relieve the pain of childbirth. Photo by Robin Siktberg.

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particular cove to take on board a supply of fresh water. While this work was in progress, one of the more contrite members of the crew took advantage of the situation and fled to a not too distant farming community, there to ultimately establish himself as an upright citizen and progenitor of many of the town’s present-day citizens. Captain Kidd’s Cove today is a sand and gravel pit with only the shoreline more or less quite like it may have been in that time long past. A few years ago when my husband and I started our archaeological work there, it was a fairyland with a dream-like quality pervading it like a mist. That is, when the machines were silent, it was dream-like. But all that beauty is gone now. Lost in the crashing roar of the stone crusher is the call of the bob-white and the sad song of the mourning dove. Ground to nothing between the giant sifters and rollers are the nests of the sparrow and the beautiful brick-red flowers of the scarlet pimpernel. Mingled in the haze and smoke of the huge bonfires of brush and trees are the tang of the wild grape and the sweetness of the mulberry, the tartness of the choke cherry and the ineffable goodness of the small red apple. Drowned in the dirty pools of run-off water are the infant mice too young to see when the bulldozer tore their nest apart. All that remains now is a nightmarish canyon of sand and gravel, encircled with hills of black topsoil out of which the bones of the aborigines of ancient days are thrust into the light of day. Breaking the horizon line like so many ravenous dinosaurs rearing their heads out of the sandy pit are the cranes and the wooden structures of the gravel sifters. It would seem that long before the advent of the European, the

While we were working at the cove, I was often preoccupied with the thought of how it could have looked when the last group of aborigines was living there. The plants that I found growing at the cove must have also pleased the eye and gladdened the spirit of another in ages past. I feel that the woman who modeled and decorated the cooking pot buried in a fire-place near the crest of the hill must have rested her eyes many times on the dense growth of mountain laurel and rhododendron. I think she must have loved the azalea that covered the eastern mossy bank of the cove like pink embroidery worked on emerald plush. The delicate wood anemones, wild geranium and unbelievable masses of trailing arbutus all enhanced the rare beauty of the spot. To add to our interest in archaeology is my own in gardening. The end of a day’s digging found us separating the potsherds and bone awls from my botanical specimens that were destined for the wild flower garden in the woods or the herb garden or my edible wild plant patch. Some ended up in the soup

kettle. A large number of these plants are mounted dry and stiff in my herbarium containing all of those used by the Indians. On early spring mornings while the grandmothers and old men tended the fires, the women left their wigwams and went forth in search of pot herbs. Pokeweed shoots, wild onions and leeks were especially delectable. Down by the stream flourishes the skunk cabbage that was not despised for its odor. The roots, when dried, pulverized and baked to extract the bitter juice were esteemed as a pot herb. Nearby grew the cattail, whose young green tops served as tasty additions to a meat stew. The root was dried, pulverized and used as flour in breads. The jack-in-the-pulpit root, though intensely acrid, was made edible by the process of drying, then boiling and discarding the first waters. Growing companionably by the cattail and jack-in-the-pulpit was the Phragmites, whose young shoots were chosen for the pot. While the women gathered pot herbs, the medicine man was bent on his own springtime errands. There was the tender new bark of young sassafras waiting to be peeled and dried, then brewed as a blood purifier. The strawberry was valued for the same purpose. Along the woods’ edge he dug bayberry root to put into his medicine bag along with the other toothache remedies such as sweet flag root and wintergreen Continued on page 20

Captain Kidd’s Cove was lush with vegetation, including (clockwise from top left) wild geranium, violas, blackberries and oak trees.

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earlier dwellers on Captain Kidd’s Cove had either left or died. Great epidemics of typhus and smallpox had swept through the tribes of Connecticut before the arrival of The Mayflower, so it would be plausible to suppose that Long Island tribes had also fallen prey to the same diseases. Only a few survivors had remained to greet the white stranger.

leaves. The inner bark of the witch hazel he stored for use as an emetic, and the whole plant was steamed over hot stones in the steam bath as the volatile oils relieved many ills, including a spring cold. Another favorite cold remedy was an infusion made from the inner bark of the hemlock. Along the shady stream bank he gathered trillium in order that he might assuage the pains of childbirth when necessary. When blossom time arrived, the medicine man collected yarrow blossoms and leaves to be brewed as a tea for headaches. He also sliced freshly dug jack-in-the-pulpit root and tied a piece against each temple. This was psychosomatic medicine in that the counterirritant was so powerful that the headache was forgotten. The boneset that grew in the marshy places was the plant most commonly used for fevers. The flowers of sweet goldenrod were also favorite diaphoretics. Growing in the same area were elderberries, whose flowers were used as a decoction for lung disorders. Up in the woods the medicine man gathered sarsaparilla flowers, which he also used for ailing lungs. On his way back to the medicine lodge, he would come upon sunny fields of great mullein, whose woolly leaves would be plucked and used as a treatment for rheumatism. The leaf would be steamed, then wound hot about the painful joint and held in place until it cooled, then another hot leaf would replace it. The mullein leaves were effective as a decoction to relieve dysentery and intermittent fever. Late summer and early fall was the busiest time of all for the plant gatherers. Many fruits were ripe and ready to be dried for winter use. The medicine man gathered serviceberries and dried them for

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use as a prevention of after-pain and hemorrhage in childbirth. He collected squaw berries for the same purpose, and wintergreen berries he saved for his rheumatism and lumbago patients. The staghorn sumac berries were a good antiseptic as was the puff-ball and the whole plant of the anemone which yielded its valuable principle mostly in the fall. The women made berry-picking time a holiday. Off they went with their children and dogs in tow toward the hill opposite the cove where grew the lushest chokecherries. They were dried and mixed with cured meat, then fashioned into thick cakes. Many a cold and tired hunter found renewed energy in these rations. The blackberries, raspberries and elderberries were all treated similarly and equally relished. Blueberries grew in large quantity at the cove and were often mixed: with corn meal, baked and served with honey or maple syrup. Husk tomatoes were a welcome addition to any meal. There were many roots to be dug in the fall and chief among them were the cattail, which made a sweet, fine, white flour after having been dried and pulverized. Catbrier roots made a palatable flour, as did those of the Solomon’s seal. Tubers of the butterfly weed were relished as a substitute for potatoes and arrowhead roots were used in like manner. The medicine man dug sarsaparilla roots and dried them, then made a strong tea as a febrifuge. While many nut trees grew at Captain Kidd’s Cove, the most numerous were the oak. There must have been many chestnut trees during the time of aboriginal occupation, the only proof being scores of rotted stumps throughout the wooded area. The hickory, black

walnut, beech, and chestnut were stored in bark baskets for winter use. Acorns were pounded to a fine flour in a mortar, then put into a rush basket, which was anchored in the stream for about ten days while the freshly running water washed out the bitter tannin. After the meal was dried in the sun, it was patted into small flat cakes and fried in bear fat or sunflower or pumpkin seed oil. Another interesting use of nuts was a formula for infant feeding. Dried butternuts and hickory nuts were pulverized and mixed with pulverized dried deer or bear meat. Boiling water was added and the formula was fed to the infant from a dried and greased bear intestine tied at one end and fitted on the opposite end with a bird quill as a nipple. An important chore of mothers was that of collecting cattail fuzz and milkweed down for diapering their babies. The medicine man valued cattail fuzz as a treatment for burns and scalds when mixed with animal fat. Seeds of many plants were gathered in large quantities for use as food and medicine. Amaranth and Phragmites were made into flour. The medicine man saved columbine seeds for treating headaches. All of these plants still grew at the cove when we started our work there, but they are gone now. The women who valued them as food are gone, and the medicine man who used them in the best way he knew went away long, long ago. One of our approaches to the digs was a path up from the road where we parked our car and through a dense thicket of briers and honeysuckle. Towering above the parked car was a group of black walnut trees and honey locust. Nearby flowed a little stream.

The fragrance of this honeysuckle-canopied path haunts me still. At the end of the path, standing like a sentinel, was a Rosa multiflora that must have been at least seventy-five years old. Its trunk was like a tree and it had climbed to the top of a twenty-foot tall cherry tree and then cascaded down through the cherry’s branches like a waterfall. I first saw it in June and as I write I can even smell it. On our approach, a warbler would sometimes make a hasty exit and watch us from a nearby apple tree. This particular apple tree provided a home for a rabbit family, and Nancy never forgot to put her hand into the suddenly vacated nest and feel the soft, warm roundness of it. The apples on this tree tasted like another species of fruit when compared with other apples, and we often augmented a scanty lunch with them. The best description I can think of is that they tasted like a combination of honey, raisins and wine—and apple. This tree marked the end of the canopied path and here, flanked by stinging nettles, it broke out into the open where the bulldozer had cleared a wide swath. The number of plants that had reseeded themselves in that disturbed area was beyond belief. Not only were they multitudinous, but their robust vigor was incredible. Pokeweed, jewel weed, evening primrose, moth-mullein and nettle; all growing so densely that we had to cut our way through at first. Most of the plants had not attained their full stature in June, our first contact with them, so we could still see what was underfoot. Black mustard was everywhere and so was the black medicago; where there was more light we found the lovely scarlet pimpernel. Towering above the other plants were many of the great mullein and

as far as the eye could see were ox-eye daisies drifting all up and down the sunny hillsides. Weaving

Arisaema triphyllum (Jack-in-the-pulpit) was used as a counterirritant to fight headaches. Photo by Robin Siktberg.

throughout this flowered tapestry was the blackberried nightshade. As we neared a thinly wooded area, immense patches of wild onion, poison ivy and more evening primrose changed the aspect. In this spot was the largest fireplace we had found. It was surrounded on three sides by wild cherry, cedar and apple trees all connected to each other by strong old grapevines. Cardinals, mourning doves, many species of warblers, robins, catbirds, vireos and various sparrows all had nested in this secluded, well-protected wild spot. This fireplace provided work for us during one summer, and throughout those pleasant warm days, the hum of insects, the calls of the birds and the rustle of the wind through the grapevines reminded us that, though we were concerned ourselves with a long-dead past, the living, vibrant world of nature was still about us. The spring after our second child was born, we went back to the digs, baby, folding carriage, formula and all. I suspect baby Nell is about the only baby who has ever drunk her formula from a thermos bottle with one bootee resting on an oyster shell that has been extinct from Long Island shores for over 200 years. Continued on page 22 21

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The ground here was ideal for the growth of star of Bethlehem, wild sweet cicely, and Ranunculus. These were undoubtedly all escapes from the gardens of the early colonist, whose only monument was a halfburied stone foundation and a brick-lined cistern filled with a living bouquet of jack-in-the-pulpit and male ferns. Separating this lush, moist garden spot from the path was a dense patch of thimbleberry. We had hacked away an opening and beyond this was the narrow, twisting path over which I traveled always with the feeling that adventure was ever imminent. Around each bend there was bound to be a challenge or a peril. We had to stoop in places to avoid the tangles of catbrier and the arching whips of blackberry and blackcap. In some places the honeysuckle created rather a dense shade and the ground was moist and spongy. My husband usually went first with the digging tools, Nancy would follow with her little shovel and pail, and I would bring up the rear with a butterfly net, the lunch and the fieldglasses.

All of the fireplaces we dug were tightly packed heaps of oyster, clam, scallop and conch shells. These latter were the shells from which white wampum was made, the manufacture of which was the chief industry of this particular group of aborigines. They called themselves the Matinecock and were of Algonquin stock. Most of the fireplaces consisted of three distinct layers of shells, each containing artifacts of markedly separate cultures. The potsherds, usually representative of the first ceramic period of occupation at our site, were make in the same way that pottery had been made in Northern China and in Siberia since 2500 B.C. It is unique in that a cord-wrapped paddle was used in smoothing the damp clay after the pot had been formed. This oldest pottery was grit-tempered and the vessel itself had a conical base characteristic of the Algonquin style. We have no whole vessels, but we have enough pieces of two separate ones to enable us to judge the size and general shape of each. We have many samples of the decorative style used in the early occupation during medieval times. We found several bone awls in the middle fireplaces. They were made from the tibia of the deer, and were used for punching holes in skins where the insertion of sinews was needed for making seams. Those awls could also have been used as probes and picks for extracting marrow from bones. Arrow heads chipped from quartz we have found in profusion and the stone implements are among our choicest possessions. A stone axe, a war club, a hoe and part of a pestle represent the most valuable specimens. As I have said, this part of Captain Kidd’s Cove is still untouched by the hungry teeth

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of the steam shovel, and is yet to tremble under the tread of the bulldozer. But the rest of the digs has been consigned to the past. When I look at that raw, gaping hole I am sad, not only for the lost race and their broken pottery, but I miss our lovely days of exploring and our excitement over the discovery of a new fireplace. Aside from the wonder of holding in one’s hand something that another had fashioned and used hundreds of years ago, was the wonder that such a wild, untamed place could exist just for us.

buried fireplaces of those other people and why did they erect their wigwams over them? And one moonless night when the cove was still and no one stirred in the house down by the creek, the summer breeze stirred the wild peppermint and the odor of it mingled with the sweet cicely under the kitchen window. All the plants with English names added their own perfume to the night air. The dark waters of the cove rippled softly too; and a man wanted for hanging in England stopped there just long enough to give the cove his name.

My purpose has not been to write an article on the archaeology of Captain Kidd’s Cove or even a diatribe against the monstrous bulldozer, but rather to set down in words my feelings on the utter destruction of a place on earth, not by war or earthquake or flood, but by man and time.

Then, for a brief time, a man and his wife and his daughters loved the cove and tried to satisfy a certain longing to learn of the past.

The dark-skinned woman who had so laboriously fashioned her cooking pot out of clay and smoothed it with a cord-wrapped paddle, as her ancestors had done in a far-away land she had never known, had broken her pot and let it remain in the ashes where it had fallen. But what happened to her? Where did she go? Why? How? All I have for an answer are parts of the pot and the decoration around the rim. It is simple and beautiful. What interrupted the days of the man who built his fire and his wigwam over that ancient, grassgrown shell-heap with the broken pottery buried in it? How did he know there had been a fireplace there before him? And yet, a third wave of migration must have swept over the hills and down the trails toward this peaceful cove all rimmed with trailing arbutus and crane’s-bill. Did they come from the east or the west? How did they find the

___________________________ “It is winter now and there is nothing but the wind howling over a sandy floor and the clank of the cold machinery reverberating from wall to wall. I am no botanist, but I have long found pleasure in herbgathering. I love to come upon a plant which is unknown to me, to identify it with the help of my book, to greet it by name when next it shines beside my path. If the plant be rare, its discovery gives me joy... Today I have walked far, and at the end of my walk I found the little white-flowered woodruff. It grew in a copse of young ash. When I had looked long at the flower, I delighted myself with the grace of the slim trees about it—their shining smoothness, their olive hue.” ---From The Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft, by George Gissing

Herbal Folklore

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The following paragraph from the introduction of “Mistletoe, Magic and Medicine” says it all: “Now out of print and rare, this paper contains so much important material that it seemed to me that it should, in some way, become part of the permanent records of The Herb Society of America.” How could we not continue to make it part of our permanent records? That is why it earned a place in The Best of the Herbarist. — Jo Sellers Dr. Leo C. Kanner •1967 This is the title of a monograph by Leo C. Kanner, M.D., reprinted from Bulletin of the History of Medicine, Vol. vii, No. 8, October 1939. Dr. Kanner is Professor Emeritus of Child Psychiatry and Honorary Consultant, Johns Hopkins University and Hospital. When I came across this paper, several years ago, while reading in the Phipps Library at Johns Hopkins Hospital, I was greatly impressed, not only by its absorbing interest, but by the amount of careful research that had gone into it, as shown by its extraordinary bibliography. Now out of print and rare, this paper contains so much important material that it seemed to me that it should, in some way, become part of the permanent records of The Herb Society of America. It seemed too long for The Herbarist, so I asked Dr. Kanner whether he would write it for us in shortened form; he replied that he was much too busy, but that I might use it in any way I wished. The result is the following article, which has been lifted almost word for word from Dr. Kanner’s text. ---Dorothy Bovee Jones

o most people today, the story of mistletoe begins and ends with its connection with Christmas. Yet mistletoe is such an outstanding personage in the plant world that it has occupied a place of almost incredible importance in folklore, in folk medicine, and in magic, in many nations. It has caught the popular fancy as no other plant has ever done, and the bibliography on mistletoe would fill a fair-sized volume. Mistletoe is native to the warmer parts of the Old World and to America. The true mistletoe, Viscum album, is native only to Europe. It is an evergreen bush, four feet or more in length, with opposite leaves of a leathery texture, yellowish-green in color. The flowers, appearing in February or March, are nearly the

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color of the leaves, but yellower, and appear in groups of three, which ripen into white berries in December. The berry has a heart-shaped seed, surrounded by a viscous, sticky pulp. The distribution of these seeds, the propagation of this plant, has puzzled botanists for 2,000 years. Theophrastus, in the fourth century B.C., and Pliny, in the first century A.D., advanced theories as to how mistletoe spreads, in which later writers concur. The seeds are eaten by birds, particularly the missel-thrush; they pass undigested through the intestinal tract, and are deposited upon the bark of trees, where they sprout. Suckers, resembling roots, penetrate the bark. Sir Francis Bacon discredited this theory because sometimes mistletoe appears on the underside of a branch. However, he advanced no alternate theory, and it was demonstrated later that seeds, striking the ground, bounce and hit the lower side of the branch. The sticky fluid hardens and holds the seed in place. Another way that birds plant these seeds is by eating the berries and wiping their bills on the bark, thus depositing the seeds. Mistletoe seed has never been known to grow in soil, for the plant is a true parasite, one of the most extraordinary known, receiving all its nourishment from the host tree, which may be an apple, a pear, an oak, an elm, a sycamore, an acacia or a linden; in America, an oak or a maple. The seeds will sprout on dead wood, metal or glass, but will never live beyond the germination stage. Successful artificial propagation of this plant is practically unrecorded throughout the centuries. Its growth is slow, but persistent, and mistletoe almost never dies until the host tree succumbs. Those who ascribe human attributes to inanimate objects note the ill effects of the mistletoe upon the oak as vile ingratitude. Not only do the trees have cause for complaint, but also the birds that carry the seeds. What does the thankless mistletoe do in return? Its berries yield a viscid pulp, which is used as a means of catching birds. Pliny writes that the berries are

Is it surprising that a plant with so many peculiarities should attract the attention of the superstitious and fanciful? Note them:

•

To the Romans, it was the Golden Bough that helped Æneas to descend to the underworld. Mistletoe is linked with the Golden Bough in a five-line passage in the sixth book of Virgil’s Aeneid.

•

To the Germanic nations, mistletoe was the killer of their sun god, Balder. Balder the Beautiful, Norse god of the sun, god of light, beauty, summer, poetry, god of all that is good, decent, desirable, was the son of Odin and Frigg, king and queen of the immortals. Handsome, beloved by all, he was in danger, for a seeress had prophesied that he would die from an arrow made of mistletoe. His mother, Frigg, took an oath from fire, water, poisons, four-footed animals, birds, worms, metals, stones, earth and trees, not to injure Balder. The mistletoe, however, was too young to take an oath. During the games of the gods, Loki, spirit of evil, arranged with his blind brother Hoder, god of war, to shoot an arrow of mistletoe wood at Balder. The twig pierced Balder, and he was dead. His beautiful wife Nanna died of grief.

•

It does not grow from soil, but lodges in strange trees. It is propagated by birds.

•

It furnishes a substance that leads to the destruction of birds. It grows upside down, and, This [last] is the story of Balder’s contrary to the habits of other death as told in the Eddas, the plants, the pendant bushes turn Prose Edda, ascribed to Smorri their leaves away from the sun. Sturtuson (1179-1241) and the It flourishes in full leaf and fruit Poetic Edda, the work of Salmund when the deciduous host has the Wise (1055-1132). Mistletoe was lost its leaves and is bare. described as a tree of the fields, It thrives in darkness and shade, not a parasite. Most commentators think that the Icelandic authors of and is not only a parasite, on the Eddas were simply ignorant of unrelated trees, but mistletoe the plant, which is not indigenous furnishes fertile soil for the to Iceland. nourishment of parasitic

•

insects. •

Mistletoe’s strange ways led to strange tales and strange beliefs. It figures in the mythology of at least three groups of IndoGermanic peoples

was gone. Winter and frost are not eternal; summer and warmth return. Popular fancy revived Balder; the shaft was plucked out of his breast and given to his mother as he opened his divine eyes. Frigg pronounced mistletoe to be no longer a symbol of death, but an emblem of life, resurrection and love. The plant came to be the great symbol of Scandinavian mysteries, occupying the same place that Acacia holds in Masonic rites, or Lotus among the East Indians—all symbols of resurrection and immortality. The Celtic nations, the Gauls, the Bretons and the Welsh, believed that mistletoe was a heavenly plant, of divine origin, the seeds having come directly from heaven, sown by birds, who were messengers of the gods. It contained the life and soul of the oak, was planted higher Continued on page 26

People could not tolerate the idea that the most beloved of all gods Right: Mistletoe growing on a tree.

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rotted, then beaten to a soft mass, and mixed with walnut oil. This preparation, called birdlime, spread on the branches of trees, is infallible in catching birds. It has only to touch their wings. The Romans were so impressed by the fact that mistletoe helped kill birds that had brought it into existence that they coined a proverb “Turdus malum sibi metipsi cacat.” (The thrush excretes its own doom.) This adage was used to admonish wrongdoers, and Æsop, in the sixth century, made use of the same theme. The owl counseled the birds to pull the sprouting acorn out of the ground to prevent its growing to produce another mistletoe from which a poison, birdlime, would be made to destroy them. The birds considered the owl mad, and gave no credence to his warning. Later, finding it to be true, they pronounced the owl the wisest of birds.

than any other vegetation, rooted nearer the ethereal home of the gods, suspended halfway between the sky above and the earth beneath, truly a celestial plant. The Celtic Druid priesthood was a secret society, which did not divulge its mysteries to the layman, so the accounts of their ceremonies are few. Pliny tells, however, that nothing was more sacred to the Druids than the mistletoe of the oak, which was called by a name meaning “All-Healer.” In the ceremony of the harvest, the priest, in a white robe, ascended the tree, and cut down the mistletoe with a golden sickle. Received as it fell by others in white cloaks, it was then used to immolate the victims of the sacrifice, two white bulls. Other sources tell of human sacrifices being killed by the same golden sickle. At the end of the ceremony, children were sent around the countryside with bunches of mistletoe to announce the New Year. This connection with the New Year is still preserved in France and Spain. Because of its identification with the pagan rites of Druidism, mistletoe was banned from the Christian church as a profane plant. The strict rules gradually relaxed, however, and in the late seventeenth century John Gay wrote:

Christmas the joyous period of the year Now with bright holly all your temples strow With laurel green and sacred mistletoe. One reason for the shift in sentiment was the legend that mistletoe was the wood of which the Holy Cross was made. Mistletoe, legend said, was not always a parasite, but was once a tall forest tree. When people went to search for wood for the cross, all the trees split themselves, to avoid being disgraced—all except the mistletoe. In punishment, mistletoe was reduced in size and condemned to an ignominious parasitic existence. Having furnished wood for the cross, it was referred to as lignum sanctae crucis, herbe de la croix, wood of the Holy Cross. Eventually, the origin of the name was forgotten; everything that Jesus touched was deemed holy, and mistletoe acquired great sanctity. The berries, growing in threes, became a symbol of the Trinity; rosaries were made of its wood, and monks swallowed chips of it. To the superstitious, this world of ours is a place in which thousands of evil spirits have been let loose to

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disturb and harass us. Invisibly they walk, fly and creep upon the earth, undermining our good health. Were it not for them, there would be no lean harvests, no heresy, no illness. Mistletoe was credited with such supernatural powers that even a sprig of it would bring happiness; it would protect you from witchcraft, help you to open locks, discover immense treasures, and protect you from lightning. Peasants in France and Germany hold these beliefs today. To avail yourself of all these blessings, do you imagine you can just go out and cut off a piece of mistletoe? By no means. To be of any use, strict rules must be followed in gathering this plant, or it may do you more harm than good; the rules depend upon the country in which you are gathering it. Gather it in the new moon without the use of iron; pull it out with your hands; shoot it down or knock it down with a stone; catch it before it reaches the earth. This is a universal rule; it must never touch the ground in the harvest. Many years ago in a holiday near Camden, South Carolina, it was a favorite sport for young people to shoot down mistletoe from high trees. I can still hear the shouts of the native Carolinians— “Don’t let it touch the ground! It mustn’t touch the ground!” Shoot it down with an arrow catching it in your left hand, and always gather it when the sun is in the sign of Sagittarius (on or after November 22nd). In Wales, the size of the crop depends upon how the mistletoe flourishes that year. The same belief exists among the Ainus, in Japan, where the plant is cut into five parts, prayed over, and sown with the grain crop. Since the days of ancient Rome, it has been fed to cattle to fatten them. From Scotland, from France, from Germany and from Poland come folk beliefs in its power to increase the production of milk. In Holstein, the peasants call mistletoe the specter’s wand. Carrying a branch into an old house will enable a person to see the ghosts who live there, and will force them to answer questions. The association between mistletoe and fire was established in early times. The belief is based on the legend that the plant owed its existence to a flash of lightning, and that the oak, its bearer, was sacred to Jupiter, the god of thunder and lightning. Frazer showed that mistletoe was the seat of the magic essence, the very soul of its host. In the Department of Nievre, in France, mistletoe berries are thrown into the fire when it thunders; in African Senegambia, warriors venerate it, and carry the leaves to prevent wounds; in Sweden, mistletoe leads to hidden treasure, and makes a reliable divining rod if cut on Midsummer’s

The ancient Greeks believed that the mandrake, one of the most mystical herbs of all time, lived under mistletoe, and was nourished by the droppings from the berries. The roots of the mandrake resemble a human form, and is supposed to shriek when pulled up, such a piercing shriek that you are advised to let a dog pull it up while you stop your ears. The earliest account of this belief is found in a second century herbal.“There are certain trees that do bear mistletoe and under it doth grow a child in form and shape like a man, and is nourished by the drops that drop from the mistletoe. This child is called a misselchild.” Let us consider the virtues of the mistletoe: •

It promotes good grain and fruit harvests.

•

It fattens livestock.

•

It increases milk production.

•

It holds herds together.

•

It safeguards against ghosts and witches, nightmares and conflagrations, brings good luck to farmers, homeowners, hunters, warriors, wrestlers and travelers.

•

It forces specters to reveal secrets.

•

It locates buried treasure.

Shakespeare mentioned mistletoe only once, in Act 2, Sc. 3, of Titus Andronicus. Tamora, the Queen of the Goths, says:

A barren detested vale you see it is The trees, though summer, yet forlorn and lean O’ercome with moss and baleful mistletoe; Here never shines the sun; here nothing breeds, Unless the nightly owl and fatal raven. The All-Healer Having so many magic properties ascribed to it, mistletoe could not fail to be appropriated by folk

medicine. Through the ages, many plants have been regarded as efficacious against some kinds of illness; only mistletoe was believed to cure all ailments. The Gauls called it the All-Healer, and the name still persists in Celtic languages. In the first century, Dioscorides wrote “Mistletoe mollifies old ulcers and malignant suppurations,” and for 1,600 years herbalists and physicians followed his teaching, using it to treat all kinds of swellings, ulcers, felons and abscesses. There was no limit to the magic power of this plant. Muscular atrophy, erysipelas, impetigo, lost fingernails, all yielded to its supernatural power. It brought fertility to animals and humans, assured easy childbirth, provided twins when desired, was praised as a sedative in hysteria, delirium, giddiness and apoplexy. Because it held its green foliage in winter, it protected from frostbite. Mistletoe in wine was the treatment for leprosy, the scourge of the Middle Ages. In 1753, B. J. Buchwald wrote a thesis in which he assured the faculty of his university that mistletoe always cured tertian and quartan fevers. It stopped hemorrhages from the nose and lungs, cured dysentery and tuberculosis, heart disease and gout. Colbatch, in the eighteenth century, reports a sevenyear-old girl cured of St. Vitus’s Dance by powdered mistletoe. In Brazil and East India, special varieties were used to treat syphilis. The list goes on and on. The more dreadful the disease, the greater the protection afforded by mistletoe. In the treatment of epilepsy, however, mistletoe gained its highest repute. For 3,000 years popular fancy had occupied itself with the phenomenon of epilepsy. Today, the word is associated with the science of medicine, but the original meaning takes us back to the realm of mysticism. Epilepsy signifies a state of being seized or attacked, and indeed these same words are used today to describe an epileptic convulsion. The belief prevailed that the patient was overcome by a demon or wicked spirit who played pranks with the body and soul of the sufferer. One would think that this malady would fill witnesses only with dread and horror, yet the “falling sickness” always held such a fascination for people that it was feared and revered, abhorred and adored, cursed and blessed at the same time. It was known as the demoniac, detestable, wretched disease, but also as the sacred, divine, and great disease. Is it surprising, then, that an affliction regarded at the same time as horrible and divine, was believed to succumb to mistletoe, which was looked upon as baleful and lucky, poisonous and healing, a killer of the gods and a gift from the gods? Continued on page 28 27

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Eve; in East Prussia, it is believed that gold lies under the hawthorn bush which bears mistletoe. Frazer, who named his twelve volumes of almost inexhaustible ethnologic information The Golden Bough, sees a connection between the golden color of the withering mistletoe branch and the golden treasure. In the Tyrol, a “hazel worm” lives under a bush bearing mistletoe, and he who captures the worm, and bites off a piece of it, will make himself invisible and will comprehend the language of herbs.

Distinguished physicians sung the praises of mistletoe; case histories, well-authenticated, added to the confidence of the people. For two hundred years prescriptions for mistletoe powder drunk with wine, or beads of mistletoe hung around the neck, were written to combat the falling evil. Suddenly, skepticism began to creep in. In 1885 Cowers reported that he had tried mistletoe in a considerable number of cases with beneficial results in only one, which was apparently hysteroid. So an interesting chapter in the cultural history of the art of healing came to a close. Mistletoe, the AllHealer, was then, in the opinion of licensed physicians, a non-healer. But not for nothing was mistletoe a symbol of resurrection. If it had been thrown out of the churches, it entered the homes, to occupy a place of honor at Christmas; if it had been thrown out of the temples of scientific medicine; it was only 70 or 80 years before it was reinstated. In 1906, reinstatement Mistletoe (Viscum album) took place in France, where, 2,000 years before, the Druids had venerated it as the All-Healer. Gautier recommended for high blood pressure, a watery concoction of the leaves and bark, which brought about a persistent drop in arterial pressure and an acceleration of the heart beat. From France, clinical and experimental work spread to Switzerland, then to Spain and Italy. Forty papers were published in 1906 in the foremost medical journals of the world on its use for hypertension. No longer a magic wand, it had become a useful modern drug.

Steiner and the Anthroposophic Society, research was commenced on the use of mistletoe in treating cancer. The work has progressed to the present, in expanding facilities, and in the Lucas Clinic in Arlesheim and in other countries including the United States, a preparation made from the entire mistletoe plant is in use. Called Iscador, in the Swiss pharmacopoeia, it is made from Viscum album found on five trees, apple, fir, pine, oak and elm. Both the harvest and the preparation of the plants are carried on under the auspices of the Clinical and Therapeutical Institute of Arlesheim, where, also, physicians and nurses are being trained in Iscador therapy, reportedly with marked success. Each year, two journeys are made to pick the mistletoe; the first, 5,000 miles in length, extends from Basel to the North coast, then by way of Pau and the French Maritime Alps to the Mediterranean and back to Basel. The second, of about 1,800 miles, leads into Austria, to Karnen and the Danube Valley below Vienna. The picking is done with great care, so that the plants grow again; in the meantime, every effort is being made to propagate mistletoe in the vicinity of Arlesheim with the help of missel-thrushes. Because tests revealed such great variation in the quality of the sap, samples were picked every day to find out what was responsible for the changes. Heat, cold, rain, drought, and the changing seasons had almost no effect; then it was found that mistletoe was reacting to moon and solar eclipses—even eclipses that were not visible in the locality where the plant was growing. Now, harvesting journeys can be planned months ahead just by keeping track of the sun and the moon!

Epilogue

The harvest is more complicated than that of any other herb. Complete camping equipment is carried on these long trips through forests. In addition, there are climbing irons, bows and arrows for shooting nylon cords across trees to facilitate the use of rope ladders; also carried is a Swiss invention called the tree cycle, which makes the climbing of trees of great girth easier. There are jointed rods for the actual picking, and cameras with telescopic lenses to record the position of the mistletoe-bearing trees, especially the rare oaks and elms.

Not long after the publication of “Mistletoe, Magic and Medicine,” mistletoe preparations used to treat hypertension were replaced by other herbs and modern drugs. However, mistletoe was not to be consigned to the role of Christmas decoration only.

How different the story of this plant from that of the other herbs! All the other plants have traveled with man across oceans and continents, partly because he loved them, partly because he could not do without “these servants of his magic, these healers of his pain.”

In 1921, a clinic had been opened in Arlesheim, Switzerland, where, under the direction of Rudolph

Mistletoe has been venerated, but never loved. It has been, and remains, a plant of mystery.

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Deadly Nightshade, Dogwood and Henbane

Lee Applebaum •1986

Lee Appelbaum skillfully makes the case for a different plot twist in the classic The Scarlet Letter, by Nathaniel Hawthorne. Read on for a wellwritten and fascinating account of how herbal poisons played a part in the downfall of Arthur Dimmesdale.You thought you knew this book? We’ll see... — Robin Siktberg

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t’s a puritan lovers’ triangle: The Woman: Hester Prynne. Young, beautiful, married in the Old Country to a “misshapen scholar” much older than herself. Alone but for her illegitimate infant in the Boston of 1642, nothing, neither imprisonment nor humiliation upon the town scaffold, will make her reveal her lover’s name. For her crime, she’s been condemned to wear a scarlet “A” for adultery sewn to her dress.

The Man: Reverend Arthur Dimmesdale, a promising young clergyman full of religious fervor blessed with a powerful gift of eloquence. A sensitive man with a high, lofty forehead, large brown melancholy eyes, and a nervous, tremulous mouth, he’s worshipped by his flock. However, he proves to be all too human when he enters into an adulterous union with Hester. The Cuckolded Husband: His real name remains unknown, although he adopts the name Roger Chillingworth in order to conceal his relationship with the shamed woman. An alchemist and physician, he early on discovers the identity of Hester’s lover and vows to wreak a terrible revenge on the unfortunate man.

“personal physician” and “friend”—none other than Roger Chillingworth. Khan’s assertions have created a hornet’s nest of controversy as literary scholars, doctors, and pharmacologists write in to “exhume the corpse” in the “Letters” section of the journal. Like a skillful prosecuting attorney, Khan examines both Chillingworth’s motives and means by which to commit the murder. He also points to Hawthorne’s specific references to certain toxic herbs, and argues that Hawthorne did extensive reading on herbs and plants before he wrote the novel in 1846. Lastly he focuses on Dimmesdale’s physical and mental degeneration in the years of his acquaintance with Chillingworth until his collapse upon the town scaffold, the scene of Hester’s humiliation some seven years earlier. Khan finds Dimmesdale’s described symptoms to be consistent with those caused by overdoses of the lethal alkaloid atropine found in certain herbs. To those with an interest in herb toxicology, Khan’s argument provides the point of departure for an in-depth look at the herbs Hawthorne isolates and their effects on human beings. Did Chillingworth poison Dimmesdale? Let’s look at the evidence. You be the judge.

Thus, in that American classic The Scarlet Letter, Nathaniel Hawthorne, according to most scholars and critics, returns to explore the characters and themes introduced in his earlier First of all, author Hawthorne works—Hawthorne’s own carefully sets Dr. Chillingworth Puritan heritage in Salem, the up as well versed, even mad doctor the evil scientist, expert, in the field of herbs the fallen clergyman, and most and plants—both of his of all, the pernicious effects native England and of the Hyocyamus niger (henbane) Photo by A. Mehta, courtesy of hidden sin and guilt. Seen New World, in Massachusetts. Smithsonian Institution. in this way, the novel emerges Interestingly, the toxic herbs as a moral drama in which Chillingworth avenges Chillingworth employs are those that were native himself on Dimmesdale through psychological torture, to Europe, especially Britain, and were imported to becoming hideous and inhuman in the process, and the New World for both medicinal and ornamental Dimmesdale himself suffers horribly and eventually purposes. dies from his repressed sense of guilt over his part in A little later we find out that in his Indian captivity, Hester’s downfall. Chillingworth “had gained much knowledge of the Jemshed A. Khan, M.D., of the University of Missouri, properties of native herbs and roots; nor did he sees the story differently, though. To him, it’s clearly conceal from his patients, that these simple medicines, murder. The murder weapon? Atropine—extracted Nature’s boon to the untutored savage, had quite as from the doctor’s toxic herbs. Khan’s article in large a share of his own confidence as the European The New England Journal of Medicine, “Atropine pharmacopoeia. . .” Poisoning in Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter” Not only has Chillingworth the knowledge of herbs, makes a strong case for Dimmesdale’s demise due he also has the means by which to process them. to atropine administered in herb remedies by his In the rooming house he shares with a few others, The Herbarist i Issue 74 2008

stramonium or jimson weed, an ill-scented, extremely toxic annual that thrives in waste ground.

Folklore abounds with the real and purported qualities of jimson weed. Every New England farmer knew how important it was to clear his field of it since grazing Hawthorne makes specific mention of three extremely animals could die from ingestion. Jimson weed has dangerous and deadly herbs, carefully linking them to even changed the course of history. The name is a Chillingworth. On page one of the novel, perhaps to corruption of Jamestown weed, which dates from introduce his mystery, or as Khan says,“to plant the 1676 in Virginia. Apparently, the soldiers sent in to stop first poisonous seedling of suspicion early in the novel,” Bacon’s Rebellion ate the berries of the plant, became Hawthorne refers to “apple of Peru” growing in an deathly ill, and were unable to fight. The famous herb unsightly, overgrown plot in front of the prison-house. historian Culpepper notes that Sweno’s army was Later Hester meets Chillingworth in the woods as he destroyed when the canny Scots mixed the berries forages for herbs,“stooping along the ground, in quest in wine and offered it to their foes. One story even of roots and herbs to concoct his medicines withal.” imputes the witchcraft hysteria in Salem in 1692 to the She begs him to cease his persecution of Dimmesdale. weed, claiming that the girls who cried out upon the However, Chillingworth witches ate the berries one day refuses to leave the minister while they were playing in the to Heaven’s judgement and woods. continues on his way filling In Europe, herb healers his basket. Hester looking had been using Datura for after him, wonders,“Would centuries in order to cure he not suddenly sink into the nervous afflictions and even earth, leaving a barren and nymphomania. It’s claimed that blasted spot, where, in due the oracle at Delphi inhaled the course of time, would be seen smoke to produce visions. deadly nightshade, dogwood, Datura’s cousin, deadly and henbane, and whatever nightshade or Atropa else of vegetable wickedness belladonna, was named the climate would produce...” by Linnaeus after Atropa, Apple of Peru, deadly the oldest of the Fates who nightshade, henbane, and performs the final function dogwood. Casual references in spinning, measuring, and for no apparent reason? Not cutting the thread of life. That likely, since the first three choice of name bears witness along with another relative to the properties of belladonna, belong to the Solanaceae [or] well known to herbal healers potato family, and ironically Cornus florida (dogwood) Photo by Robin Siktberg. worldwide. In Europe, the [are]the most toxic of all skillful Italian poisoners of the Renaissance used herb genera. Thus, Hawthorne’s specific reference to belladonna since it caused prolonged poisoning that those plants opens up a Pandora’s box of intriguing was difficult to detect. In Italian, bella donna means possibilities. beautiful lady. Women used it in eye drops since it Jemshed Khan incorrectly identifies apple of Peru as dilates the pupils, creating deep, pool-like orbs. It has the shoofly plant or Nicandra physalodes, a medicinal even been said that the Emperor-by-default Claudius plant imported from Peru during colonial days. was poisoned by belladonna. Nicandra’s toxic alkaloids are capable of affecting Henbane or black henbane or Hyoscyamus niger, the heart. Khan cites Dimmesdale’s cardiac attacks in the third member of the family, is a bitter narcotic the novel and imputes them to this herb. However, a poison and very definitely the bane of hens. All three well-respected government publication, A Guide to members of the Solanaceae family thrive in what Medicinal Plants of Appalachia, identifies apple of sources term “disturbed soils”—waste places, ditches, Peru (aka devil’s trumpet, devil’s apple, mad apple, old fields, hedges near old stone buildings, etc. In just stink apple, thorn apple, apple Peru) as Datura such a “disturbed ground”—an old graveyard—does Continued on page 32 31

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including poor Dimmesdale, he has constructed a laboratory “provided with a distilling apparatus, and the means of compounding drugs and chemicals, which the practised alchemist knew well how to turn to purpose.”

Dr. Chillingworth gather “unsightly plants” as the doomed minister watches him from a window. Jimson weed, deadly nightshade, and henbane owe their toxicity to the existence of alkaloids within them. Alkaloids are the active constituents of drug plants, the agents used for good or ill when administered to living beings. The alkaloids within the three herbs include high levels of atropine, and traces of hyoscine (scopolamine), hyoscyamine, and solanine. Atropine and its related alkaloids have therapeutic as well as deleterious effects on the human body. One of the breakthroughs in obstetrics occurred when doctors in the mid-1800s began to use scopolamine and morphine to produce the “twilight sleep” of labor, a state of amnesia, hallucination, and euphoria. Later, this practice was discontinued when it was found to be harmful to the infant. Atropine is effectively used against motion sickness, DT’s, and as a specific antidote against certain kinds of mushroom poisoning. Pharmacists use atropine sulfate as an eye ointment in order to produce dilation. Belladonna specifically aids in treating peptic ulcers since it inhibits gastric secretion. However, the leaf of the plant is not used because of the risk of overdose. The main effect of atropine is to alter the heart rate. It also inhibits the sweat glands, producing flushing and dryness of the skin. An overdose creates dilated pupils, a rapid pulse, fever, restlessness, disorientation, depression, and hallucinations. Other symptoms include disturbed speech function, a scarlet rash over the face, neck and upper trunk of the body, and a weak and rapid pulse. Death finally occurs due to respiratory failure. A man suffering from atropine poisoning might exhibit a general appearance of emaciation and ill health, complain of chest pain, show a red rash over the upper body, and seem to be disoriented and psychotic at times. This is Arthur Dimmesdale. Hawthorne makes no fewer than twelve references to Dimmesdale’s habit of clutching at his chest. As the years wear on, it becomes a habitual, involuntary action accompanied by grimaces of pain. Other adjectives used to describe Dimmesdale include emaciated, pale, thin, haggard, feeble, despondent, listless, and deathlike. At two places in the novel, including the climax, the minister exhibits a bizarre rash or “stigmata” upon his breast. Chillingworth seems convinced that he’s seen the shape of a scarlet “A” to match Hester’s, either carved or in some other way manifested upon the minister’s breast. Dimmesdale also shows an aberrant psychological state as the novel continues. His usual high-strung temperament becomes even more erratic which he imputes to a “disorder of his nerves.” He suffers from insomnia and sleepwalking. On one such night, he finds himself on the town scaffold and wonders if he is going mad. He hallucinates in his chamber and imagines that he sees mocking diabolic shapes, or ethereal shining angels. Near the end of the novel, Dimmesdale finds out the identity of his friend Roger Chillingworth. This revelation occurs three days before Dimmesdale is to preach an important sermon honoring the colony’s new governor. The sermon turns out to be the triumph of Dimmesdale’s life. How could a man at the brink of death pull off such a feat? The answer lies in the fact that after Dimmesdale discovers Chillingworth’s identity, he refuses to take any more of the “remedies” that Chillingworth has been pressing him to take. Dimmesdale eats ravenously, then sits down to write his sermon as the acute effects of the poisoning subside. On the day of his sermon, all notice that his hand does not rest upon his heart, and that he walks with an energetic stride toward the town square. Atropa belladonna (deadly nightshade) Photo by R.A. Howard, USDA-NRCS Plants Database The Herbarist i Issue 74 2008

Was Roger Chillingworth guilty of premeditated murder in the poisoning death of Arthur Dimmesdale? In a trial by a jury of his peers, he no doubt would have been convicted, because author Hawthorne concludes his story by stating that many in the town believed “old Roger Chillingworth” to be a “potent necromancer” who had caused the ghastly scarlet letter imprinted on Dimmesdale’s breast to appear “through the agency of magic and poisonous drugs.” What is your verdict? Innocent or guilty?

References “Atropine, Atropine Sulfate:” Drug Information, American Hospital Formulary Service. American Society of Hospital Pharmacists, 1985, pp. 443-447. Bradley, S., R. Beatty, E. Long (eds.), “Nathaniel Hawthorne:The Scarlet Letter” in The American Tradition in Literature, New York: W.W. Norton, 1967. Goodman, L, A. Gillman (eds.), The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, New York: Macmillan, 1975, pp. 514-532 Hardin, J.W. And J.M. Arena, Human Poisoning from Native and Cultivated Plants, Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1978. Khan, J.H.,“Atropine Poisoning in Hawthome’s The Scarlet Letter,” New England Journal of Medicine, Number 311, 1984, pp. 414-416. Krochmal, A., R.S. Walters and R.M. Doughty, A Guide to Medicinal Plants of Appalachia, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Handbook No. 400, 1971.

Herbal Folklore

However, Dimmesdale’s rally proves to be short lived as the long-term effects of the poison manifest themselves. The town watches as Dimmesdale fades before their eyes, his movements becoming convulsive as he fights for breath in order to make his confession. After he declares his sin publicly, holding the hands of his lover and his child, he expires upon the scaffold.

Muenschez, W.C., Poisonous Plants of the United States, New York: Collier Books, 1975. Tampion, J., Dangerous Plants, New York: Universe Books, 1977. Wellborn, G.P.,“Plant Lore and The Scarlet Letter,” Southern Folklore Quarterly, Volume 27,1963, pp. 160167. Young, P., B. Storms, A. Kera et al., “Atropine Poisoning in Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter,” New England Journal of Medicine, Volume 311, 1984, pp.1438-1441.

The Anniversary

Joan E. Janssen • 1999

These sixty-five years, of what can we tell Of gardens and herbs and friendships as well Of herbs we have spoken and herbs we have grown Of use and delight in the herbs we have known. We’ve toiled in herb gardens, we’ve studied herb lore— We’ve reached out to others—in these years three score. The hours, the days, the time we did share. Of education and pleasure no verse could compare In these months of activity, spring, summer and fall Education of others is our goal above all. Rightly today we celebrate the HSA glory And remember and retell the herbal story Whose gallant members nurtured as they chose Never sure of the harvest of their first row. Using garden hints and planting tips as their seeds They made HSA flourish with herbal deeds. How many lives did this garden touch? How many more live herbal lives as such? These sixty-five years they began with hope That their splendid dream would spread in scope That their little green plot of herbal seeds Would continue to nurture herbal deeds. To this special garden of faithful fruitful rows, We lift our trowels and trugs and congratulate in prose. Proudly we members join together today To celebrate herbal friendship in this special way. We congratulate all and pass these words on to each “Please continue to garden and to learn and to teach. Sprinkle a little delight in each special row So our HSA garden will continue to grow.” From The Herbarist, 1999. Written in honor of the 65th anniversary of The Herb Society of America

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Donna A. Gerbosi-DiFulvio •1999

Donna Gerbosi-DiFulvio’s adventure into the world as an ethnobotanist is not only instructional, it is also a very good story. It opens a window on rural life in pre-World War II Italy.While this took place several generations ago, it reminds us that there are many people living in the same conditions now. Having read fascinating accounts of famous ethnobotanists’ travels to the ends of the earth to record the knowledge of the few remaining shamans, this article brings such research into the realm of possibility for anyone interested in saving historical information whether it be medical, religious, culinary or superstitious. — Caroline Amidon

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Dominic and Nicoletta Stenta DiFulvio had a traditionally arranged marriage, when Nicoletta was only fifteen years of age. Once farmers, they came from the region of Italy directly east of Rome known as Abruzzi. Located on the Adriatic Sea and surrounded by mountains, Abruzzi remained for years rustic and isolated from modern technology. Only forty years ago, inventions such as electricity, indoor plumbing and telephones were unavailable in many villages. Babies were delivered by midwives and the nearest hospital was an hour away by horse-cart, if you survived the journey. Boys were educated, because they were expected to run the family farm. Girls, however, were raised to care for their parents and siblings and eventually their own families. Because a daughter’s

presence was so crucial to the survival of family and home, they were not sent to school and usually didn’t learn to read. The exception would be if a family was without sons. Only then would the eldest daughter be taught to read and write, so that she could manage the homestead. Farms were plowed by horse and man, water was drawn from a well, and in the winter, families lived above the barn to utilize the heat

Dominic and Nicoletta Stenta DiFulvio on their wedding day. Photo courtesy of Donna A. Gerbosi-DiFulvio

rising from the sleeping livestock below. Without the benefit of local stores, Dominic and Nicoletta described how they grew what was needed for survival: flax to make their own linens, wheat to make pasta and bread, grapes for wine—the beverage of choice— and olives for extruding precious oil. Soap, cheeses, smoked or cured

meats, pickles and preserves were all made at home, and tomato sauce would be stored in sealed wine bottles. During World War II, Nazi soldiers took possession of [the villagers’] homes, and the residents fled to safety in the nearby mountains. For six months, the entire village took shelter inside caves, hiding by day. If their presence had become known, they would have been shot and killed by snipers. Emerging only under the cover of darkness, Dominic and Nicoletta foraged with family and friends for whatever edible plants they could find. Fifty years later, a history of herb customs began to unfold when I started to ask questions about the plants in their garden. It was sometimes impossible to differentiate between what they considered medicinal herbs and what was merely food. Being of part Italian ancestry myself, I can readily understand their philosophy of “food is life.” It was also difficult to separate their folkloric beliefs—what was based upon astute observations of the natural world, what were religious practices, and what were cultural superstitions. Frequently, the three seemed to overlap. The concept that pious Catholicism could comfortably co-exist with deeply held superstitions was indeed ironic. Most often feared was “malocchio” (bad eye), more commonly known in English as the Evil Eye. Although it is taken quite seriously by my in-laws, I personally don’t believe in malocchio. Out of amusement I would allow Nicoletta to examine me for its telltale signs in an elaborate ritual involving the use of pure olive oil and Holy water. My continuing disbelief annoys her, but in appeasement I bring my mother-in-law gifts of herbs that are reputed to ward off the Evil Eye. Continued on page 36 The Herbarist i Issue 74 2008

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y love of herbs started about the same time as my affection for my husband. Coincidence? I’m not sure, but our subsequent marriage introduced me to his parents and their history of herbal traditions, brought here from Italy. My first thought was to collect a volume of their herb lore, but after some faltering, I realized that it was a much more complex endeavor than originally anticipated. What did I learn through trial and error was how to gather an herbal history, especially taken orally from illiterate women, not educated as children because of their gender. The following is an account of this fascinating experience, so that others may learn from my successes and mistakes as an amateur ethnobotanist. Perhaps my story will inspire other members of The Herb Society of America to preserve their own cultural herb lore.

What You’ll Need to Harvest An Herbal Tradition •

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Have an interpreter present, if necessary. Sometimes my interview subjects didn’t understand what I was asking them, and I learned to differentiate between a look of comprehension and one of uncertainty. My husband would re-ask my questions in Italian when we suspected that I wasn’t being understood in English. And he was also a better judge of when his family was growing tired or bored during sessions. Bring paper and pencil and ask them to draw a picture of the herb. They may feel self-conscious at first, but it helps to get a sense of what they are envisioning. And, a feature of the plant might appear in the sketch that they previously neglected to mention. If you know where they are from, try to obtain a book about plants from that region. In my case, books concerning flora native to the Mediterranean and especially Italy, France and Greece were helpful. Similar growing conditions are key factors.

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Ask to be recommended to others with whom you might speak. An older person, a distant relative or someone whose grandmother was the local midwife might know even more.

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Bring good reference books of plants and herbs. Color photographs are helpful (what specific shade is light blue anyway?) as are pictures of plants in their habitats and close-ups of a flower or leaf. Keep in mind that herbs may appear differently if they are grown in another climate or location.

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Also bring a botany reference with outlines of various leaf shapes, margins and veins. Allow them to point to the corresponding details. Ask if the leaf or blossom was smooth, shiny, dull, hard, fuzzy, prickly, and so forth. Use simple terms that they readily understand.

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Have measuring devices handy, such as rulers and yardsticks, measuring cups and spoons. Allow them to demonstrate the size of a leaf or flower, in front of the ruler. Use the cups and spoons to measure ingredients. An experienced cook might not need to measure, but correct proportions are crucial to recreating their recipes. Realize that amounts may vary depending on the strength of a plant or even the weather conditions.

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A video camera is helpful to record their story, or techniques for growing, harvesting and preparing

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medical treatments. A tape recorder could be less intrusive, if they are camera shy. •

A tape recorder also helps if an accent confuses your understanding of a plant name, or the spelling of a word. I discovered that spoken with an Italian accent, “white” and “wild” sound identical. Rather than asking them to repeat something over and over, it is more considerate to replay the tape at a later date. However, tapes can break and the information will be lost. Don’t allow a taping device to take the place of your notepad. Never depend on your memory; write it down.

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Wear a watch with a second hand. If they are willing to prepare something in front of you, time how long each step takes—i.e., how long do they steep an herb in water? A vague idea of “only a little while” will rarely mean the same thing to you.

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Have patience and time, regardless of your schedule or their advancing age. It takes time to gather information, especially if done orally. Plants and people not thought of in a long time need to be slowly recalled. Be prepared to let them take their time; rushing them can cause inaccuracies in the storytelling. Follow up with repeated communications—many things were recalled after I had left. Because our earlier conversations had jogged their memory, they were able to relay additional facts to me over the telephone.

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Accompany them outside to view herbs in the wild or even in the backyard. The process of elimination worked for me. I would point to a plant and ask if it resembled the herb they had in mind. Any differences could then be described. Ask questions: Is the leaf, flower or fragrance similar to anything else? Does it look like a tomato leaf or smell like lemons, roses or a skunk? Does the plant flower? Is it a perennial (determine if they lived in a frostfree environment, before asking this)? What part of the herb did they use, and how? Sometimes the persistent presence of an insect can aid in plant identification—Nicoletta recalls peony flowers as being covered by ants. Likewise, the description of a common plant disease might also be advantageous in your research.

But, this same malva tea was used to treat digestive ailments. Nicoletta describes an incident when she was a teenager, stricken with a serious stomach infection. Being gravely ill, she was given enormous quantities of malva tea to drink, and finally recuperated after several weeks. Intrigued, I asked her to show me how they made this herbal

infusion. Light green in color, it tastes to me like the weakly flavored water remaining from steamed Swiss chard. At first, this perennial herb appeared to be Malva sylvestris, but the flowers are smaller and lighter in color. Until its identity can be confirmed, I now grow this unknown malva in my own garden, along with the rest of the herbs they brought to this country forty years ago. When someone was ill, the grandmother or great grandmother would be summoned. Wise in the way of plant medicine and respected by the family, her instructions would be immediately followed. If a child had a respiratory problem, a warm plaster would be made with roasted barley and applied to the chest until the youngster was able to breathe easily. In the case of an insect sting, bite or a burn, one would apply a cut onion, cut potato or crushed plantain leaf to ease the pain. Plantain (Plantago sp.) was easy to find in the fields surrounding the farms and considered to be a superb healer of the skin. The juice of a fresh fig was used to treat open wounds. If a person received a cut, the fig juice would be squeezed into the wound as a disinfectant and to stanch the flow of blood. Then the opened fig would be pressed onto the wound and bandaged in place, protecting the cut until you were able to return home and clean it properly. To treat a bruise or sprain, two egg whites would be beaten

until stiff and then blended with a cup of flaxseed. The mixture would be placed in a soft white towel and wrapped around the injured limb, until the swelling or discoloration disappeared. When Nicoletta’s eyes were bloodshot from working all day in a dusty field, her mother would make a compress of chopped parsley (Petroselinum sp.) and hold it to her eyelids. A little bit of fresh parsley juice would seep inside her eyelids and act as an eyewash. I was cautioned that one must not squeeze the compress, because excessive juice would be “too strong for the eyes.” Of course, when I asked what herbs were used to make skin or hair treatments, they laughed heartily. As hard-working farmers, appearances were considered frivolous. At best, chapped hands might have olive oil rubbed into them as a salve. At other times, when I asked how herbs were used to care for their livestock, they talked about feeding poison ivy to the chickens. Puzzled as to how that could be beneficial, they said that sometimes feeding poison ivy was all that was available for use as chicken feed, especially after the war. What made the experience so challenging for me was in trying to correctly identify specific plants and to decipher which plant was used for what purpose. Nicoletta refers to the borage growing in her garden as “varein” [vah-RHINE], but borage is called “boragio” in Italian. Unable to find any reference to the word “varein,” and because my mother-in-law is illiterate, I cannot obtain an accurate spelling. Therefore, I’ve resorted to spelling it phonetically. Is “varein” a bastardization of the word borage or even the botanical name, Left: Chicorium intybus (chicory)

Continued on page 38 37

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Herbal Folklore

They used wine and olive oil on a daily basis and both liquids were considered to be vital to good health, as was garlic. Before the garlic bulbs were ready for harvest, Nicoletta would snip the long green leaves and cook with them. Chicory leaves (Cichorium intybus), which they call “Ciccoria,” were eaten in salads and sautéed like spinach. Spring greens such as dandelions (Taraxacum sp.) and wild broccoli rabe (Brassica sp.) were collected from fields and thought to strengthen and purify the blood. The young leaves of borage (Borago sp.) were batterdipped and fried. Caffe latte (coffee blended with a large amount of milk) was administered to those with weak constitutions: children, those recuperating from recent illnesses and the elderly, never to a healthy self-respecting adult. A tea brewed from the leaves of malva (Malva sp.) was dispensed sweetened to young children, instead of the modern habit of fruit juice.

What to Avoid During Interview Sessions

Borago, or is it an entirely different name? This particular cultivar also sports pink or blue flowers simultaneously. Their color can be spied while still in bud, so I know that it doesn’t change with time or pollination.

A person uneducated in botanical nomenclature wouldn’t understand such terms as ovate, dentate, or taproot, and they may be put off or intimidated by your use of them. They would understand, however, if you said a leaf was oval like an egg, or that the root was long like a carrot. Don’t talk down to them; just speak plainly and leave any scientific pretensions at home. The word “tuber” is foreign to Nicoletta, so she refers to all tuberous roots as “potatoes.” Hence, if she is discussing “flower with the potatoes,” I know she means dahlias. And even though she understands how to make a medicinal tea by steeping an herb in hot water, I would never call this beverage by its correct name of tisane or infusion— those names wouldn’t be recognized.

At times Nicoletta didn’t know the English name of an herb, so I’d ask her to repeat it in Italian. She’d always regard me with a doubtful expression, convinced that I wouldn’t understand her. But when I heard her say,“laurel,” it was easy to recognize it as bay leaves (Laurus nobilis), also known as bay laurel. Similarly, she refers to flaxseed as “linen seed.” Another time my husband’s “comare” (the title given to Italian godmothers), Pia and Linda, were discussing a plant that was used both to relieve tension and as a sleep-aid. Suspecting it to be a poppy (Papaver sp.), imagine my surprise when they actually called it “Papaver.” How fortunate that the Italian language is not only based on Latin, but also still very similar. I once questioned Comma Pia and Comma Linda as to what plants they had used if they had a cold or sore throat. Amused, they glanced first at each other and then at me before saying with a patient smile,“We didn’t have anything to use—you either got better or you died.” On the other hand, I have noticed my mother-in-law preparing a hot drink with chamomile, honey, malva, orange peel and a touch of whiskey to soothe a sore throat.

If they’re working from memory, don’t lead them into telling you what you hope to hear. Maybe certain herbs were known to have been grown near their home or perhaps are common ingredients of the cuisine. That doesn’t mean your interview subject was familiar with such plants or even used them in Above: Dominic and Nicoletta today.

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As I look back on the changes in our relationship, I expect there will always be some mother-in-law tensions, but working with Nicoletta has given me new respect for her as a person, a woman and a mother. Her wisdom and perseverance through incredible hardship impresses me tremendously. And I think my mother-in-law has enjoyed the research experiment in her own way, finally obtaining the long soughtafter respect and acknowledgement she desires. In addition, my interest in herbs has gained the admiration of Dominic and Nicoletta. When they visit our home, they’re eager to tour the garden and see what herbs I am growing. Amazed by the wondrous variety, they’re particularly enamored of novelties like purple basil and purple chili peppers, lemon thyme and prostrate rosemary. The vibrant scent of lemon verbena and the red flowers of pineapple sage enchant Nicoletta. Of course, they’re naturally suspicious of a plant such as cinnamon basil; while still a basil, it’s not an appropriate flavor for tomato sauce. My husband has always despised gardening. As the child of farmers, he views anything agricultural as a hard, backbreaking way to earn a living and definitely not as a hobby. Astonished that I could communicate with his extended family in the language of plants, he is also relieved that friction between his mother and me has eased. And now that my husband has started to make his own wine, Dominic has taken a renewed interest in his grown son’s activities. I’m just as pleased to see their relationship growing closer, too.

•

If you are interviewing several people, realize that they may disagree on certain facts. Sometimes this can be caused by competition. Living in Zone 5, every year Dominic plants his garlic in the month of November. He will call me as a reminder to plant my garlic too, usually around Election Day. Later that same day, Nicoletta will telephone back to tell me to wait, because she thinks that it’s too early to plant. I know she does this to aggravate her husband and challenge his knowledge, so I just play along. It’s really of no great concern to me, because I plant my garlic at Halloween, regardless of my gardening in Zone 7, because the sight of all those miniature vampires trick-or-treating jogs my memory. Of course, I neglect to mention this fact to my in-laws.

•

As people reminisce about the past, bittersweet memories may be stirred. Be sensitive to their emotions. Don’t forget that years ago it was common for children to die from various illnesses, and that remedies were of vital importance.

•

If you can’t understand what they’re saying, that’s your problem—don’t make it their problem.

•

You must recognize and accept the dynamics between yourself and your interview subject, because they will most certainly come into play at some point. As the daughter-in-law, I eventually realized that I had committed the unforgivable crime of marrying Nicoletta’s only son. Keeping this in mind at all times was crucial—I wisely deferred to her facts, even when I knew them to be wrong. By understanding the situation and not challenging her directly, I enabled Nicoletta to relax enough around me to correct herself. Ultimately, my goal was reached.

•

Note the nuances of language, dialect or idiosyncrasies of speech. Nicoletta has a peculiar habit of transposing personal pronouns; she refers to men as “she” and women as “he.” This usage must have been acquired when she first learned to speak English, and it took me some time to comprehend to whom she was referring. Oddly enough, my husband has never realized that she does this, probably because it doesn’t occur when she is speaking Italian. Another peculiar trait is that in their spoken Abruzzese dialect, the final syllable of most multi-syllabic words

is dropped—the penultimate syllable is the last pronounced. I’ve also observed the entire family performing the same thing while speaking English. Not knowing what that ultimate syllable might be, I’ve had to leave a blank space, to be filled in later if discovered. While fascinating from a linguistics point of view, this made a tremendous difference when trying to decipher and record a history of herbs, presented orally, in another language, mostly from memory. •

Be attentive to the fact that the information given to you might be incorrect, either deliberately or unintentionally. Realize that false conclusions may be reached—did they really get their skin rash from a large and showy plant, or was it actually from the inconspicuous one growing beneath it? And it’s not unheard of for someone to purposely mislead you out of distrust, fear, ignorance or selfishness. Nicoletta knows of at least one person who is renowned for surreptitiously altering her recipes (rendering them unworkable), if she’s even willing to share them at all. Know your interview subject and if possible, ask others about their character.

•

Accept that initially people may be hesitant to work with you. There might be a natural suspicion—why would anyone want to know this and what do you plan to do with the information? Perhaps they’re embarrassed that what little they do remember would be of interest to, or of use to anyone else. Or, in the case of some women, might their intelligence or actions be belittled by others, sometimes even their own husbands or children? Then again, many are flattered by the attention. Whenever I’ve expressed my fascination with their herb folklore in terms of wanting to understand and record what their ancestors taught them, most people were much more willing to assist me. It was important to show respect in meaningful ways for their culture, whether that meant being exceedingly deferential to an older person or bringing them a gift. I never forgot that I approached them and was on their time.

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Herbal Folklore

What to Keep In Mind During Your Research

Lavender, Spike When it comes to lavender, Dr. Arthur Tucker is the expert in the field. This article is important because Dr. Tucker clearly defines the three species of Lavandula, illustrates the variations in flower form, and identifies many of the cultivars associated with each species. The author’s expertise is evident as he carefully describes the various flower forms, and as he interjects his personal experiences from researching, propagating and searching for specific plants. The accurate taxonomic information and the propagation and cultivation techniques provided make this a very valuable article. — Joyce Brobst

A bee alights on a lavender flower (Lavandula angustifolia). Photo by Robin Siktberg.

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and Lavandin

hree species of Lavandula are most commonly encountered in commercial cultivation and the herb trade: true lavender (or simply, lavender), spike lavender (or, simply, spike), and lavandin. Lavandin is a hybrid of lavender × spike. Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) is native to the Mediterranean region and has been cultivated for centuries; the Romans probably introduced it to Britain for steeping in their bath water. Today lavender is an indispensable part of the English cottage garden and is discussed in books on herbs, shrubs, perennials, and evergreens. This reflects its multitude of uses in the garden: fragrance, summer flowers, and winter color. Many cultivars of lavender have been selected for stature, scent, and color of flowers. The odor of lavender is so unique that a description is almost impossible. Words such as sweet-floral, warm-herbaceous, and hay-like all fit the odor. Some authors state that the words lavender and Lavandula were derived from the Latin lavare, to wash, and perhaps the most descriptive term for its odor is “clean.” Spike, or aspic (L. latifolia), is also native to the Mediterranean region but is known as a horticultural subject only by the dedicated herb grower. The odor of spike is usually described as “camphoraceous,” but a better description would be eucalyptus-like lavender. While lavender is the herb for the “finer” uses, such as perfumes, spike finds uses in the “coarser” vehicles, such as soap. I have never encountered any cultivars of spike. Lavandin? While the oil of lavandin (L ×intermedia) has been known in commerce since the 1930s, lavandin seems to be unknown except by perfumers. Try to find lavandin in The Royal Horticultural Society Dictionary of Gardening or Hortus Third! This lack of information is doubly surprising since lavandin is frequently offered by herb nurseries. However, the common cultivars of lavandin, which are sterile, interspecific hybrids of lavender × spike, are invariably designated as lavender in the horticultural literature and catalogs. Lavandin was first described as a natural hybrid in 1828, but a number of artificial hybrids with fancy names have been created in the last few decades. Lavender, spike, and lavandin are very similar but can be readily distinguished by the flowers. The flowers of lavender are subtended by bracts that are broad; these are best described as ortho-rhombic. When the length of the floral bracts of lavender is divided by the width, a fraction of 0.83-2.20 results. Smaller bracts, called bracteoles, may also accompany the bracts, but the bracteoles of lavender are usually minute and deciduous. The bracts of spike are long and slender; the length/ width ratio is 4.67-7.00. The bracteoles of spike are long, slender, and comparatively numerous. As might be expected, the bracts of lavandin are intermediate; the length/width ration is 1.33-3.00. Bracteoles are always present in lavandin. 41

Left to right: Lavandula latifolia (spike), Lavandula xintermedia (lavandin), and Lavandula angustifolia (lavender). L. latifolia has acicular (needle-like) bracts and bracteoles (small bracts), while L. angustifolia has deltoid (triangular) bracts and almost no bracteoles. Photo by Arthur O. Tucker

Fig. 1 A whorl from the middle of the inflorescence of ‘Loddon Pink’ lavender (Br=bract, Bl=bracteole, Co=corolla, Ca=calyx).

Fig. 2. A whorl from the middle of the inflorescence of ‘Dutch’ lavandin.

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Taxonomy & Science

Arthur O. Tucker, Ph.D. • 1985

Another characteristic that separates these two species and their hybrid is their flowering time. In USDA Plant Hardiness Zone 7, lavender blooms first, about mid- to late June. Then lavandin blooms, about early to mid-July. Last to bloom is spike, about late July to mid-August. Lavandins are also taller (around 36-40 inches in flower) than lavenders (about 9-32 inches in flower.)

Cultivars of Lavender

Fig. 3 A whorl from the middle of the inflorescence of spike.

Perhaps one of the rarest cultivars of lavender is white lavender,‘Alba,’ which was first described in 1826 but cultivated as early as 1623 in Switzerland. I have seen herbarium specimens from cultivation in England in the 1960s but I am still searching for ‘Alba.’‘Alba’ is often confused with the dwarf white lavender,‘Nana Alba.’ Dwarf white lavender grows only nine inches tall (when flowering) and might suggest a good edging plant were it not for its extreme delicacy and marginal hardiness in Zone 7. I have examined three pink cultivars,‘Rosea,’‘Jean Davis,’ and ‘Loddon Pink,’ and found all to be identical in stature (around 16 inches when flowering), floral color (a light Neyron rose), and essential oil patterns;‘Rosea’ seems to be the oldest name. I have not seen living plants of ‘Hidcote Pink,’ but some herb growers claim that this is identical to ‘Rosea’ also. Any variation that may exist among these cultivars is negligible.

Lavandula latifolia (spike) has a eucalyptus-like lavender scent.

The dark violet-flowering lavenders all seem to have been originally selected from ‘Nana Atropurpurea.’ While the corolla of these lavenders are the same shade of a dark aster violet as other lavenders, what sets them apart as appearing darker is the dark violet color of the normally light green calyces. The flowers appear darker because you see the combination of both dark violet corolla and dark violet calyx.‘Hidcote’ is the most famous dark violet-flowering lavender, having been selected by Major Lawrence Johnston to commemorate his Hidcote Manor in Gloucestershire, England.‘Mitcham Grey’ and ‘Munstead’ are similar selections, differing only in nuances of color and hairiness (although their individual essential oil patterns are like fingerprints.)

Photo by Arthur O. Tucker

‘Munstead’ is a particular problem. This cultivar was supposedly selected by Miss Gertrude Jekyll before 1916 at her estate, Munstead Wood, in Surrey, England. However, Miss Jekyll never mentioned this lavender in her writings, so the correct application of the name is uncertain. Today most British and all American nurseries pass off ‘Compacta’ (a lavender-blue flowering cultivar) as the dark violet-flowering ‘Munstead.’ ‘Munstead’ also flowers earlier than ‘Compacta,’ but both are about 15 inches high when flowering. Other dark violetflowering cultivars include ‘Dwarf Blue,’‘Loddon Blue,’‘Middachten,’ and ‘Summerland Supreme.’ The lavender-blue-flowering

The Herbarist i Issue 74 2008

Cultivars of Lavandin The most common cultivar of lavandin is ‘Dutch.’ ‘Dutch’ lavandin, growing to around three feet when flowering, makes an excellent hedge in the garden. ‘Dutch’ has been long known in England as L. vera. Other cultivars of lavandin include ‘Grappenhall,’ ‘Grey Hedge,’‘Hidcote Giant,’‘Old English,’‘Provence,’ ‘Seal,’‘Silver Grey,’ and ‘Waltham.’‘Grappenhall’ is the tallest lavandin (to 40 inches) and also excellent as hedge material.‘Hidcote Giant’ is unique (among these lavandins) in that its oil is very similar to those lavandins raised commercially. A white lavandin,‘Alba,’ also exists in cultivation, but I have not yet located it. Lavandin was first introduced as a commercial crop with the French cultivar ‘Abrialii.’ When a mycoplasm decimated much of the ‘Abrialii’ acreage,‘Grosso’ was introduced as a replacement. Other cultivars raised in France and Italy for their oils include ‘Maime Epis Tete,’ ‘Standard,’ and ‘Super.’ All these commercial cultivars are proprietary, thus they are unavailable in the horticultural trade.

applied. The sand reflects light while lowering the soil temperature and providing extra drainage.

Propagation I have had 95% to 100% of my cuttings root if several precautions are followed. One primary precaution is the hardness of the stem and the time of the year. The wood should be semi-hardened but not picked after a severe freeze; about June to July is the time to obtain cuttings for maximum rooting. Another precaution is the moisture of the rooting medium and atmosphere. I generally have my flats uncovered and prepared with one part coarse perlite to one part sterilized clay cat absorbent (or any other baked clay frit) in a partially shaded greenhouse. The combination of perlite and baked clay frit provides sharp drainage but retains sufficient moisture between waterings. The foliage should not be in contact with the rooting medium, as water will travel by capillary action and evaporate on the leaf tips, concentrating salts and burning the leaves. Lavender, spike and lavandin—here are three species of Lavandula to grow and prize. Each brings its own unique gifts to our herb gardens and rewards the seeker and user of herbs. Lavandula xintermedia ‘Grosso’ (Lavandin). Photo by Arthur O. Tucker.

A Plea on Behalf of Future Growers The cultivars of lavender and lavandin listed herein are clones. They must be vegetatively propagated by cuttings to ensure the correct application of the names. As it stands now,‘Compacta’ is confused with ‘Munstead,’ and some companies are even offering seeds of ‘Munstead,’ further confusing the issue. The dark-violet-flowering cultivars (’Nana Atropurpurea’ and its derivatives) are already very similar. Seed propagation of any cultivar would introduce overlapping variation and further confuse the correct application of the names.

Some Critical Cultivation Hints Lavender, spike and lavandin require good drainage and brilliant light to flower well and live long. Good drainage can be provided by a number of methods, but in my flat garden I grow the plants on one-foot high mounds or, within the formal herb garden, on six-inch hills or ridges. I have found that flowering is 28-771% higher if a one-inch top-dressing of white sand is 43

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Taxonomy & Science

lavenders include ‘Backhouse Purple,’‘Bowles Early,’ ‘Carroll,’‘Compacta,’‘Folgate,’‘Fragrance,’‘Graves,’‘Gray Lady,’‘Gwendolyn Anley,’‘Irene Doyle,’‘Maillette,’‘Twickle Purple,’‘Warburton Gem,’ and ‘Wilderness.’‘Graves’ is sometimes offered in the U.S. The most wonderful find is ‘Irene Doyle,’ which flowers twice a year (late May and September in Zone 7) and has an excellent fragrance. The other lavender-blue-flowering lavenders are rare in cultivation, and some may even be extinct. I wish that I could find all of them.

Origanum libanoticum. Photo: Fitzhugh Rollins, HSA Archives.

In 1978, the Northern California Unit of HSA took on the daunting task of studying the genus Origanum. After specimens were collected by members, they were sorted, mounted and sent off to Dr. Arthur O. Tucker, Research Professor at Delaware State College for final verification. Much valuable insight to the project was also derived from the 1980 publication of J. H. Ietswaart’s A Taxonomic Revision of the Genus Origanum. Noting the impact of this study, the article goes on to describe the revision of Section Origanum “which is now limited to one species, Origanum vulgare, into which has been placed six subspecies.” The language in this article is clear, precise and easily understood providing invaluable information in clarifying the genus Origanum. — Phyllis G. Sidorsky

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Elizabeth Rollins • 1989

“Now here, you see, it takes all the running you can do, to keep in the same place.” ---The Red Queen in Through the Looking Glass, by Lewis Carroll.

Inspired by Nancy Howard, HSA Chairman of Botany and Horticulture at that time (1978), they began with enthusiasm, collecting seed from botanic gardens and plant-hunting expeditions, as In the Section Origanum well as plants and cuttings a major revision has taken from many sources. Of course, place. It is now limited to one there were many duplicates species, Origanum vulgare, among them, but several into which has been placed dozen clones were acquired six subspecies, many of which and planted in members’ had been given specific rank by gardens. In the following earlier authorities. The extreme summers, specimens of each variability of this species has were pressed and mounted caused much confusion among to be sent to Dr. Arthur O. herb gardeners and writers. Tucker, Research Professor (4,12) at Delaware State College in Origanum vulgare subsp. vulgare. Dover [DE] (and a member Origanum vulgare subsp. vulgare ‘Aureum’. This subspecies has become of the Northern New Jersey Photo: Fitzhugh Rollins, HSA Archives naturalized in America and is widely grown in gardens. Unit). It was probably an article by Dr. Tucker in an HSA Newsletter (10) that sparked much of the current In the study of the genus, at least one-fourth of the specimens received fell into this subspecies or subsp. interest in the genus Origanum and aroused the hirtum, below. It has a number of distinctive cultivars: magpie’s acquisitive instincts in some collectors. From the beginning, [Tucker] has served as taxonomist for the project and adviser for all things botanical. He answered innumerable questions and patiently certified or corrected (as frequently needed) the stacks of herbarium sheets sent him. Eventually these were forwarded to institutions having cultivated plants in their herbaria. A master file is kept at the Claude E. Phillips Herbarium in Delaware and others are in the National Arboretum, Washington, D.C.; the Bailey Hortorium, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York; the California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco; the [Royal Horticultural Society] Garden at Wisley (England); and several universities.

Origanum vulgare subsp. vulgare ‘Aureum’: This is one of several golden-leaved origanums and was the first to be given this name, being described by Parkinson in his Paradisus. Other than the different color of its leaves, it is very like the above O. vulgare subsp. vulgare. It is a vigorous plant and carries its bright color much of the year. A second golden cultivar has small wrinkled leaves that are bright yellow in the spring, becoming light green as the season advances. Though it has been in the literature as O. aureum (1,7,9), it must yield right Continued on page 46 45

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Taxonomy & Science

robably horticulturists have been trying to keep up with botanists for the more than two centuries since Linnaeus published his Species Plantarum. A newly acquired treasure is carefully placed in the garden with its label by its side, and the name barely stored in memory before the gardener learns that it is now more properly known as something else—or even worse, after growing the plant for years, finds it was misidentified in the first place. So it seemed to have happened in the study of the genus Origanum by members of the Northern California Unit of the Herb Society of America.

Publication in late 1980 of J. H. Ietswaart’s A Taxonomic Revision of the Genus Origanum brought initial dismay as some of the certainties vanished and favorite species seemed to disappear entirely. But much of the new information was finally assimilated and Ietswaart prevailed. His scholarly monograph is the first written on this genus and it supercedes most of the earlier references. It covers fifty-five species and hybrids. Apparently the majority [of species] are currently found only in the wild (or in herbaria). Data are provided on habitats, elevations, etc., with detailed drawings of the species and maps showing where each is endemic (70% occur exclusively in the eastern Mediterranean). Ietswaart states that the chemical data are too fragmentary to “use as criteria for delimitation of Origanum species,” and in their botanical descriptions he makes no mention of the volatile oils. However, the fragrance in a garden of origanums cannot be missed by those who like to pinch and sniff. Sometimes a good nose will help the gardener tell this from that.

of place to the earlier cultivar. It is suggested that it be named Origanum ‘Dr. Ietswaart.’1 Seeds have been received from Europe of other cultivars labeled O. vulgare ‘Aureum,’ but most of the plants did not have enough coloration to distinguish them from [O. vulgare] subsp. vulgare itself. Origanum vulgare subsp. vulgare ‘Humile’, sometimes known as O. ‘Compactum Nanum’ or as O. vulgare ‘Compactum,’ is a dwarf form, growing only three or four inches tall with the rare flowering stalks perhaps twice as high as the foliage. It forms an attractive ground cover.

Origanum vulgare subsp. gracile Photo: Fitzhugh Rollins, HSA Archives.

Origanum onites Photo: Steven Foster.

Other selected varieties of O. vulgare subsp. vulgare are grown for their good red color forms. Two of several examples are ‘Huntington Prostrate’ from Huntington Botanic Gardens, California, and ‘showy marjoram’ from Well-Sweep Herb Farm in New Jersey. Origanum vulgare subsp. hirtum (= O. heracleoticum) is the plant that is most often found in the spice jar as the true oregano seasoning. In the study of the genus, it was obtained under a number of different names: “Best Italian” (from Huntington Gardens),“Greek Oregano” (from a number of sources), O. prismaticum (from Barnes Arboretum and others), O. onites, O. vulgare and, of course, O. heracleoticum, The last identification is still used by many growers. This subspecies may be distinguished from [O. vulgare] subsp. vulgare by its lovely fragrance and flavor, as well as by its white corollas. This may be the plant that was sometimes thought to be the true Origanum onites by earlier writers in this country (1,12). Origanum vulgare subsp. gracile is where the two Russian species, O. tytthanthum and O. kopetdaghense, have been placed. To the horticulturist and the chef, as well, the two are distinctly different. Origanum kopetdaghense is similar to O. vulgare subsp. vulgare in its strong growth habits and its very slight flavor. The seed came from Czechoslovakia. The original sources of O. tytthanthum were Tashkent and Kirghiz, both in the south central part of Russia. This latter variety is evidently rich in essential oils, for it has a distinct pungency. The whole plant is smaller and less vigorous than O. kopetdaghense. Seed of Origanum vulgare subsp. virens came from Portugal. This is one of the parents of Origanum × majoricum, (see below) to which it evidently bequeathed its sturdy constitution.

Above: Origanum xhybridinum ‘Ray Williams’. Below: Origanum calcaratum. Photos: Fitzhugh Rollins, HSA Archives

Origanum vulgare subsp. viride1 is the final subspecies of O. vulgare that the Northern California Unit has grown. It is variable and seems to merge into O. vulgare subsp. vulgare. The Section Majorana contains three members of the genus, all of which are fragrant and flavorful: Origanum majorana, O. onites and [O. syriacum]. Origanum majorana (= Majorana hortensis), sweet or knotted marjoram, has long been considered an important culinary herb, and all respectable herb gardeners try to have it. It is a tender perennial and often short-lived. It is usually grown from seed and plants are regularly offered in the market. Origanum onites, the true “pot marjoram,” grows over a wide area of the eastern Mediterranean and has long been known in England, but the true species was not introduced into this country until 1975, when Robert Whallons collected seed in Crete (3). Since then, other collections from the Greek isles have been established in America. Previously the “O. onites” or “pot marjoram” that was described by writers and offered in the trade 1

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Now Origanum vulgare subsp. viridulum

Origanum syriacum (= O. maru) is the third species in this section. It is believed to be the hyssop of the old Testaments (8). It comes from the Levant where it is a popular seasoning. There are two varieties, O. syriacum var. syriacum and O. s. var. bevani, now growing in gardens in this country. Origanum × majoricum² (O. majorana × [O.] vulgare ssp. virens). For many years, this hybrid has been grown in California gardens and misidentified as a true sweet marjoram (Origanum majorana). The foliage and flavor of the two are similar but O. × majoricum2 is much sturdier, forming a woody understock with flowering shoots that grow to two feet. A twentyyear-old plant in our garden has withstood 15°F with equanimity. It is cut back occasionally to encourage the new young growth. Origanum × majoricum occurs naturally on the Iberian Peninsula. Could the ancestor of our plant have been brought to the California missions two hundred years ago by the Spanish padres? Those Origanum species that are used primarily for culinary purposes have been discussed but, there are others generally cultivated as ornamentals which, also, have had changes in nomenclature:

References 1. Beston, H., 1935, Herbs and the Earth, pp. 32-33, Doubleday Doran, NY. 2. Brownlow, M., 1935, Herbs and the Fragrant Garden, pp. 153-155, Darton, Longman and Todd, London. 3. Foster, G. & Foster, R., Park’s Success with Herbs, p. 186, Geo. W. Park Seed Co., Greenwood, South Carolina. 4. Fox, H. N., 1933, Gardening with Herbs, pp. 203-208, Macmillan, NY. 5. Fox, H. N., 1953, The Years in My Herb Garden, pp. 14-17, Macmillan, NY. 6. Ietswaart, J. H., 1980, A Taxonomic Revision of the Genus Origanum, Leiden University Press, The Hague. 7. Macleod, D., 1968, A Book of Herbs, pp. 107-109, Gerald Duckworth & Co., Ltd., London. 8. Moldenke, H., & Moldenke, A., 1952, Plants of the Bible, pp. 160-162, Chronica Botanica Co., Waltham, Mass.

Origanum libanoticum: Taxonomists now agree that the plant widely distributed as Origanum “pulchellum” is actually O. libanoticum (11) from 9. Rohde E. S., 1936,“A Collection the mountains of Lebanon. It is an amiable, as well as beautiful, species. of Marjorams,” Herb Easily grown, it may be propagated by cuttings or divisions. It is particularly Gardening, pp. 70-78, The effective when its long hop-like flowering spikes hang over a wall or bank. Medici Society of London. Origanum × hybridinum³ (O. dictamnus × O. sipyleum) has priority and 10. Tucker, A. O., 1975 Autumn therefore the botanically correct name for what has been known for years Newsletter, Majorana/ as O. × hybridum. Several different cultivars of this hybrid are known in Oregano, The Herb Society of California. The most decorative has been named ‘Ray Williams,’ honoring America, Mentor, Ohio. the man who introduced not only that plant but [also] many other rare and 11. Tucker, A. O., & Rollins, E. D., lovely plants. 1989,“The Species, Hybrids and Origanum calcaratum “because it was published at least a few days earlier” Cultivars of Origanums in the (6) is a prior name for what has been recognized as O. tournefortii. United States,” Baileya, 23(1), pp. 14-27, Bailey Hortorium, In the last decade, a new appreciation of the genus Origanum has Cornell University, Ithaca, NY. developed. At this writing fifteen valid species and a number of distinctive hybrids are in cultivation in this country. Every so often 12. Webster, H. N., 1948,“Notes on new treasures come along to be planted, propagated and eventually the Marjorams,” pp.19-22, The distributed. Thus the pursuit continues and the Origanum study has Herbarist, No. 14, The Herb become never-ending! Society of America, Mentor, Ohio. 2 3

Now written Origanum xmajoricum Now written Origanum xhybridinum

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generally turned out to be just another O. vulgare variety (4,12). On the Greek HSA tour with Alta Niebuhr in May, 1977, a huge old Origanum was found growing near a dry wash on the road to Lindos, Rhodes. The ancient shrub was at sea level and, as remembered, it must have been at least three feet tall and five feet in diameter. Seed was gathered and later planted at the University of California Botanical Garden in Berkeley. Upon flowering it proved to have the corymbose heads of O. onites, as well as the delightful peppery flavor typical of that species. Origanum onites can be susceptible to damping off and other maladies in its youth. Once it develops a woody base, it is long-lived, as proven by the plant mentioned above. As it becomes more widely known, this species will be appreciated as a valuable addition to the herb garden and spice cupboard.

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Peter Hanelt • 1991 ne of the most fascinating plant groups of the world is the genus Allium. It includes more than 500 species, widely distributed in the northern hemisphere and extremely diverse in their morphology, anatomy, karyology, biochemistry, seasonal development and ecological preference. Almost all of them are edible, and many species are gathered in the wild for culinary purposes. Some wild species have played essential roles in the daily diet of local peoples. In the Soviet Far East, on Kamchatka and Sakhalin, even now the Ithelmens and Kamchatdales, native minorities, collect and consume large amounts of the leaves of the locally common Allium victorialis. Bulbs of A. kunthii are a very important wild vegetable during a critical phase of the food cycle of the Tarahumara, an Indian tribe in Chihuahua, northern Mexico) (1). Wild Canada onion, A. canadense, and wild leek or ramps, A. tricoccum, have long been used by the native Indians of North America but were also highly appreciated by early European settlers. A. tricoccum is still the object of collecting activities, as documented by the ramp festivals of the Appalachians. In Mongolia and other regions of Central Asia, continuous mass collection of useful wild alliums has led to a serious decrease of populations of some species that have now been included in national and regional Red Books of endangered taxa. Of course all these species have only a local economic importance. A few domesticates of the genus however, represent significant commercial value: common onion (A. cepa), shallot (A. cepa var. aggregatum), garlic (A. sativum), leek (A. porrum), Welsh or Japanese bunching onion (A. fistulosum), Chinese or garlic chive (A. tuberosum) and, to a much lesser extent, rakkyo (A. chinense) and chive (A. schoenoprasum).

A worldwide annual area of more than 6 million acres is devoted to their cultivation, which yields a market production of approximately 30 million tons (2). There are more than a dozen minor Allium crops, cultivated locally or sporadically. The following remarks will describe some of the lesser-known culinary alliums.

Cultivated Minor Alliums Pearl onion (A. ampeloprasum, pearl onion group, syn. A. porrum var. sectivum) (3) in its original sense is surely almost unknown to Americans, to whom the name means a small-bulbed form of A. cepa. The true pearl onion of Europe is rarely grown even there. Small-scale cultivation has been recorded for Italy, the Netherlands and Germany, and commercial plantings could formerly be found in a few German districts, e.g., Thuringia. Nowadays it seems to be grown occasionally by home gardeners in central parts of Germany and it is used only for home consumption. The pearl onion got its name from its silvery, pearl-like, ovoid or spherical small bulbs, usually less than 3 cm across. These are aggregated into more or less compact clusters, which are the result of rapid formation of daughter bulbs and very small bulblets. Their size often does not differ significantly from the mother bulb, but usually they are somewhat stalked. Bulbs of the pearl onion (German, Perlzwiebel) can be distinguished easily from bulbs of the common onion by their internal structure. The bulbs are solid, formed by one storage leaf base and one protective skin leaf, whereas common onion bulbs are tunicate, composed of several (usually 7 to 9) storage leaves and several papery skins, which can be well observed from a bulb section. Larger pearl onion bulbs can produce Continued on page 50 49

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Peter Hanelt’s article comes from a broad and deep scholarly mind and takes the form of a gift of digestible information. I am partial to this type of article; I love knowing that the source is impeccably learned, and I am fascinated to see how this knowledge and information will be dealt out to the reader. Hanelt limits himself to strict limits: human consumption of a single, though enormous, genus. From these starting points Hanelt gives the reader much fascinating ethnobotanic information, as well as his own experience in collecting alliums all over the world. He supplies ample descriptions of parts used, times of harvest, propagation techniques, appearance, current usages, and more. Since he is a native German speaker, Dr. Hanelt’s prose is a little formal, and as you would expect, it is precise and covers his topics comprehensively. Most herb folks won’t have heard of many of the unusual alliums he covers, and will find the introduction to new ones as complete as could be wished short of professional botanical identifications (although there is some of that too), and a trip around the world and through centuries of time as well. --- Bam Postell

flower stalks and set seeds, but usually reproduction is done from medium-sized bulbs. The intensive formation of lateral bulblets is the reason why it is very difficult to eradicate pearl onions once established in a garden; one should take care that this onion does not become a cumbersome weed. The plants are winter-hardy, so they are usually planted in autumn. In late spring or early summer one can harvest the bulbs, but they have short storage life. After cleaning and removing of the outer firm tunic, they are pickled in aromatic vinegar. The pickle is a highly praised delicacy and therefore often adulterated by small bulbs of the more common onion. Some pickles now sold as pearl onions are nothing but small bulbs of A. cepa. Although we have no information from ancient times, one must suppose that pearl onions originated in southern Europe, perhaps in Italy, where there now occur wild forms of the closely related A. ampeloprasum. Another cultivated plant, the leek, A. porrum, is likewise very similar to the pearl onion. Both are characterized by the common chromosome number of 2n=32, which means they are tetraploid as in many wild populations of A. ampeloprasum, but not in the following crop plant.

Great-headed garlic (A. ampeloprasum, great-headed garlic group, syn. A. ampeloprasum var. paterfamilias and others) is sometimes confused with true garlic, and sometimes not distinguished from leek. In the United States it is usually called elephant garlic (4). In German it is called Pferde, or SommerKnoblauch (horse or summer garlic). Its cultivation has been reported from northwest India, the

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Transcaucasus, southern Russia, Greece, the United States, Chile and possibly Southeast Asia. It is grown commercially in the U.S. and Chile. Cultivation in Southwest Asia and the eastern Mediterranean countries is more widespread than formerly supposed. During repeated collecting missions in the transcaucasian Soviet Republic of Georgia, great-headed garlic could be observed in house-gardens of almost all of the west Georgian provinces or autonomous republics: Megrelia, Guria, Abkhazia and Adzharia. Here it is sometimes known as niori, the Georgian name for garlic, but more often as turkull or russuli niori (Turkish or Russian garlic), which could be interpreted as indicating introduction of the crop from abroad. Great-headed garlics can be characterized as leek-like plants with a very strong garlic-like odor. They have a long flowering scape with a large and dense umbel of rose-violet flowers but do not set seeds. Propagation is done usually by means of cloves of the bulbs or from yellow-brown corms which are appressed to the outside of the much larger main bulb, and which have a firm protective tunic. After planting, the corms will produce in the first year a large single spherical clove or “round,” and leaves. In the second year, flower scapes and lateral cloves are developed. Special conditions seem to be necessary for the sprouting of the corms, because under German conditions this has never happened! Bulbs and cloves are used like garlic, and sometimes, because of their strong taste, as pickles. Some farmers prefer to use the leaves as a condiment. Cloves planted in August/September will produce harvestable leaves by late autumn. It is very difficult to identify greatheaded garlic from historical

writings and documents, but it may be a very old crop. It differs from the other cultivated taxa of A. ampeloprasum in its chromosome number, 2n=48. Counts have been made with material from northwest India and the Transcaucasus, which show that it is a hexaploid crop and in this respect comparable to hexaploid wild strains of A. ampeloprasum from the eastern Mediterranean and Near Eastern countries. It may be that greatheaded garlic represents an independent evolutionary branch and that domestication led from the wild A. ampeloprasum complex to two different lines, one of them the leek/kurrat/pearl onion branch, the other the great-headed garlic branch.

Top onion (A. ×proliferum, syn.

A. cepa var. viviparum, A. cepa var. bulbiferum (5)) is a strange vegetable with a lot of common names, among them tree onion, Egyptian or Catawissa onion. It is sometimes mistakenly called Canada onion, but it is not a native of that country and should not be confused with the wild Canada onion, A. canadense of North America, which has nothing to do botanically with our crop. Top onions are typical housegarden plants and as such rather widespread in Europe, North America, and Siberia and less frequently in other parts of temperate Asia. Apparently it was more common in former times, at least in England and France. Its economic importance, however, was never very high and nowadays it is only grown for home consumption. It appears to be grown commercially in the USSR, and scientists there have developed rather sophisticated programs for its culture (6). In Germany it still has its place in many gardens, although it will

be often overlooked because only small plots are present. Amateur gardeners prefer top onions because they are perennial, winter-hardy, thrive very early and young plants and leaves can be harvested for salads, etc., in the early spring. The bulbils are also used as a condiment later on in summer.

Only rather recently was it proved that the top onion represents an interspecific hybrid which, under rules for plant nomenclature, requires that it be named Allium ×proliferum. By means of differential staining of its 16 chromosomes, some could be identified by specific banding patterns as chromosomes from A. cepa and others from A. fistulosum (7). Where and when this hybridization happened is unknown. It can be assumed that this event took place somewhere in northwestern China where the original areas of growth and cultivation overlapped. It is interesting that an onion with bulbils instead of flowers, which may represent top onion, has been described in fourteenth century Chinese literature. We know nearly nothing of its introduction into Europe and North America. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries it was common in British and North American gardens and later was sometimes re-introduced into Europe, e.g., into France, from America! Despite the common name “Egyptian,” it is not of Egyptian origin and is not known to have been grown there (8).

Wild-Gathered Minor Alliums Chinese garlic (A. macrostemon), is in China the most widespread wild Allium species, occurring in all provinces except the northwesternmost in Central Asia. It is also distributed in Korea, the Soviet Far East, Japan (there called A. grayi and nobiru) and is known from some localities in the eastern part of

In many parts of the area the species is a favorite object of gathering; especially in spring time, the bulbs are highly appreciated for their garlic-like taste. In Korea we have been told that the bulbil-less, free-flowering type will be collected by the country people. In Mongolia, populations of this species are already endangered by heavy gathering. In Japan leaves of nobiru are gathered in the wild as a salad crop (10). Although nowadays almost forgotten, the species had been once cultivated in China and is said to be one of the oldest domesticated Allium crops in this country. Its Chinese name is xiao suan (small garlic), and it was only later replaced by the more productive true garlic (A. sativum), called da suan (great garlic), which had been introduced from countries of West Asia during the first millennium A.D. During several collecting trips to China I never met this species in cultivation, but it may still be a relic crop in remote areas of that vast country because it is listed in the new Flora of China under the cultivated species of the genus. Also in North Korea several years ago an experimental cultivation of Chinese garlic was conducted in horticultural institutes. Taxonomically, A. macrostemon is quite different from true garlic, which belongs to a section of the genus characterized by tricuspidate inner filaments, the lateral tips of each often being longer than the inner anther-bearing ones. A. acrostemon with simple filaments is a member of Section Scorodon as are the decorative species A. caeruleum and A. caesium. The majority of species of this section occurs in Southwest Continued on page 52 51

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Top onions are perennial plants, forming rather large tufts, and are very similar to the common onion in outer appearance. Instead of flower umbels, however, they usually produce a complex of bulbils, which have the shape and size of hazelnuts. Very often these bulbils, or some of them, sprout on the mother plant and after growth of some 10 to 20 cm produce once more bulbils at the top. By these means, sometimes three branch generations are developed on the mother scape. The name proliferum is derived from this behavior. Beside the bulbils, some true flowers may be present within the umbel. Usually, however, the development of the anthers and ovaries ceases very early, no normal pollen and ovules being formed. Top onions are generally seedsterile and must be propagated vegetatively by bulbils or division of the tufts.

the Mongolian People’s Republic. It may occur in the herb layer of broad-leaved forests, but more often it is a component of open vegetation, frequently in mandisturbed habitats. In northeastern China, it is often a common weed of the fields and difficult to eradicate because of its strong vegetative reproduction by many lateral bulblets and bulbils. There are two types of the species, one with normal flowering umbels (var. uratense) and good seed setting, the other with mostly many bulbils replacing the flowers, sometimes completely (var. macrostemon). Apparently the populations consist of one type only in some parts of the area of the species: Korea and Mongolia. But in Japan there are populations with varying ratios of seedfertile flowers and bulbils (9).

Asia within the Oriental-Turanic floristic region and stretching westward into the Mediterranean area. Our species is one of the few exceptions that grows outside the gene-centre of this section. The plants have a rather long-sheathed scape, which carries a semi-globose flower head with dark rose flowers and stamens surpassing the tepals. Another phytogeographically interesting species is Hooker’s onion, A. hookeri. Its distribution ranges from the southwestern Chinese provinces of Yunnan and Sichuan to the eastern Himalayas, with westernmost localities in Bhutan. There are further records from the Khasi hills in Assam, and widely separated from this cohering area there is an occurrence in the mountains of central Sri Lanka, from which the species was first described in 1864 by Thwaites. This is one of the southernmost localities of a wild Allium species anywhere. Within its native area it had been taken into cultivation in northwestern Yunnan by non-Chinese minorities like the Naxi or Bai people who settled this region long ago. When settlement began is unknown, but at least in the last century, because some hill tribes from northern Thailand cultivate this species too. These tribes moved from southwestern China, where a part of them is still living, to Burma and Laos, and then from eastern Burma to northern Thailand at the beginning of our century (11). One must assume that they did carry their crops with them and that before these migrations A. hookeri had been transplanted into the housegardens of these people. The cultivation of A. hookeri spread in the meantime from the northwestern part of Yunnan into other regions of the province, and so it is possible to observe this crop also in house-gardens in Kunming, the capital of Yunnan, but the centre of cultivation is still the original area where it can be met with in many gardens and in the markets. Useful plant parts are the thick roots, which are eaten fried, pickled or, most often, cooked for special soups. Less often, the leaves are used as a condiment. The species belongs to a recently described strange group of the genus, subgenus Bromatorrhiza, which is characterized by the lack of true bulbs and rhizomes;

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storage organs are the thickened, whitish, sometimes almost tuberous roots, which may have a diameter of 3 to 5 mm and are produced in great amount. Their optimal development can be noted toward the end of the growing season. The leaves of our species and other ones of the subgenus are flat and distinctly keeled; at the top of the scape, which is up to 60 cm long, there is a globose umbel with white flowers. The subgenus contains less than 10 species, which come only from western and southwestern China and the eastern Himalaya. The decorative species A. cyathophorum, including A. farreri1, also belongs to this group. Next are two mainly Siberian species. The first, the Oblique onion (A. obliquum), so called because of its vertical-oblique rhizome, grows on mountain slopes, along river banks and on mountain meadows in the south of western and central Siberia, in the Urals and in the southeast of the European part of the USSR, in some central-Asian mountains and in the Mongolian Altai; one very isolated locality is in Romania. Peter Simon Pallas, a German natural historian appointed to the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences by Catherine II, wrote a description of his travels through the Russian empire from 1768 to 1774. He observed in western Siberia in the Tobolsk region that the farmers had transplanted this species into their gardens and used it in place of true garlic (12). The similarity of taste and smell of this species to A. sativum is expressed by some common names. The Mongolian folk name means wild garlic, and here, as in other regions, A. obliquum is collected in the wild very often. According to recent information from Dr. Friesen of Novosibirsk the cultivation of this species is still a common practice in west Siberian villages. Allium obliquum should be considered for introduction as an ornamental. It is a remarkable, large plant with flat leaves; the scape is sheathed by the leaf bases up to half of its length, and the many-flowered globose umbel contains yellow-green flowers, a characteristic which is rather uncommon in the genus.

In recent years, A. nutans has been recommended as source material for breeding disease-resistant onions. Some hybrid plants from controlled crosses between A. cepa and A. nutans were obtained by means of embryo culture and the first generation hybrids have proven to be immune to the main diseases of the common onion (14). The rather large, linear flat leaves are continuously produced during the growing period, making the species attractive for cultivation as a vegetable and as an ornamental. Both of the last species are characterized by their true rhizomes—oblique-vertical in A. obliquum, horizontal in A. nutans—on which the more or less distinct bulbs are developed. This feature documents their membership in the subgenus Rhizirideum, a large group of Eurasian species. Its further taxonomic subdivision is still a matter of controversial discussion, but obviously it or at least some of its sections or species groups represent a rather primitive group of the genus. Only a few of the above minor Allium crops are mentioned, albeit briefly, in the recently published handbook Onions and Allied Crops (15). However there are still more of them, as we have seen, which likewise have attracted the attention of man and which typify the extremely good knowledge people have had of the surrounding plant world. An example of the high appreciation for plants of the genus Allium in folk wisdom is the following passage from the Secret History of the Mongolians from the 13th century: “Brought up by the fair Ujin with leek and onion her brave sons became excellent noble men” (16) Ujin was the mother of the famous Dshingis Khan, Temujin, and the Mongolian names for leek and onion represent, according to the Mongolian botanist Dr. C. Sancir of Ulan Bator, A. ramosum, A. senescens and A. altaicum, wide-spread wild species of the Mongolian flora, which are even nowadays often collected as wild vegetables!

References 1. R. A. Bye. Jr.“Botanical Perspectives of Ethnobotany of the Greater Southwest,” Economic Botany 39(4)(1985): 375-86. 2. H. D. Rabinowitch and J. L. Brewster, eds. Onion and Allied Crops, 3 vols. (Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1990). 3. P. Hanelt and H. Ohle.“Die Perlzwiebeln des Gaterslebener Sortiments and Bemerkungen zur Systematik and Karyologie dieser Sippe,” Kulturpflanze 26 (1978): 339-48. 4. The name elephant garlic seems to have been coined by Luther Burbank in about 1919. W. L. Howard, “Luther Burbank’s Plant Contributions,” Bulletin 691, California Agricultural Experiment Station (Berkeley: 1945): 56. 5. I. Schubert, H. Ohle and P. Hanelt.“Phylogenetic Conclusions from Giemsa Banding and NOR Staining in Top Onions (Liliaceae),” Plant Sys. Evol. 143 (1983): 245-56. 6. A. A. Kazakova. Luk (Leningrad: Kolos, 1970), 231-36, 259; fig. iv facing p. 65 and on dust jacket. 7. Schubert, Ohle and Hanelt. op. cit. 8. H. A. Jones and L. K. Mann. Onions and Their Allies (London: Leonard Hill, 1963), 135. 9. S. Kawano.“The Concept of Life History Strategy in Plants,” J. Coll. Liberal Arts, Toyama University, Japan (Natural Science) 8 (1975): 51-86. 10. S. Hashimoto, M. Miyazawa and H. Kameoka.“Volatile Flavour Components of Allium grayi Regal,”J. Sci. Food Agric. 35 (1984): 353-56. 11. W. T. Stearn.“Allium and Milula in the Central and Eastern Himalaya,” Bull. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Bot. 2(6) (1960): 161-91. 12. P. S. Pallas. Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des Russischen Reichs (Leipzig: Raclam, 1987). 13. G. I. Tarakanov. personal communication, Moscow, 1989. 14. N. A.Yureva and I. V. Titova.“Method of Producing First-generation Interspecific Hybrids of Allium cepa L. × A. nutans L.,” Plant Breed. Abstr. 59(3) (1989): 255. 15. Rabinowitch and Brewster, op. cit. 16. M. Taube, ed. Geheime Geschichte der Mongolen (Leipzig and Weimar: Kiepenheuer, 1989).

Now A. cyathophorum var. farreri

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The second species worth mentioning is A. nutans, a close relative to the widespread Eurasian A. senescens. The distribution of A. nutans, however, is limited to southern parts of west and central Siberia; in the west it reaches the south Urals. It grows in meadow steppes, on steppe slopes and in the herb layer of pine forest steppes. As a wild vegetable it is especially appreciated in the Altai mountains, where it is also grown in housegardens. The cultivation of this species has recently been introduced into other regions of the Soviet Union, such as the Ukraine (13). The leaves are eaten fresh or cooked.

Osmorhiza longistylis. Thomas G. Barnes, University of Kentucky @ USDA-NRCS Plants Database.

Helen Noyes Webster • 1947

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casual history of these herbs runs through literature from the age of the earliest herbals and mediaeval treatises to modern manuals and vegetable garden books. The antiquity of their group names is significant. Scandix originated with Theophrastus (300 B.C.), Chaerophyllum, Myrrhis, Sison (Cryptotaenia) are traced to firstcentury Dioscorides, and Caucalis to Hippocrates (400 B.C.).

Black’s Gardening Dictionary of the last century records two species of chervils, and proffers advice “to the unwary amateur to whom these plants may sometimes be offered by dishonest plant salesmen.” Happily, however, today’s awakened interest in herb gardening and appreciation of the delicate herb blending so long an art in French cookery admits at least our garden or salad chervil, Anthriscus cerefolium, to its rightful place among the aristocrats of seasonings. And for those who garden in books, Eleanour Rohde writes of sweet chervil, Myrrhis odorata, her “love among the tender herbs,” and calls it “the handsomest plant of the border with its great fern-like leaves and sweetness.” Well, I know that those of us who have watched the frilled leaves of cefeuil take on their crimson hues as nights grow cooler would not count our gardens happily complete without

The meaning of the common name, chervil, is lost in the ages. Pliny may have had something to do with it, and there is some connotation with the characteristic curled or much divided foliage. Anthriscus, from the Greek for flower and fence, alludes perhaps to this chervil’s hedge-loving habit, and cerefolium is, of course,“leaf of Ceres.” Under Chaerophyllum, which refers to the fragrant “joy-giving leaves,” and three other closely allied genera, more than forty species have been described by European herbalists, naturalists and botanists. Their botanical nomenclature is replete with confusing synonymy, and around them is centered a bewildering array of folk names. Regardless of authority, at least fifteen are called chervils with some descriptive adjective. Scandix, Myrrhis, Selinum [and] Cerefolium, in addition to Anthriscus and Chaerophyllum have been used synonymously from earliest times in herbal and even modern literature. Resemblances and differences in these herbs are quaintly based upon their much-divided foliage, the sharp, elongated fruits, oftenenlarged edible roots, and the sweet anisate odor and taste, which to greater or less degree pervade the whole plant. [The] inflorescence, if we except the showy white clusters of sweet chervil, is pale and in the typical loose umbels of the parsley family, Umbelliferae. They resemble and are often confused with the parsleys, where the variation in foliage between the curled and the plain leaved forms is like that in the varieties of garden chervil, Anthriscus cerefolium.

Mrs. Webster wrote only one book, which was a compilation of herb articles she had written for the Massachusetts Horticultural Society (who owns the copyright). It was very well received and went through seven editions. However, the true depth of her knowledge of herbs, and why she was the first person to be invited to join HSA, was shown by her articles in The Herbarist over the years. In 1936 she wrote on basil, 1940 on tea herbs, 1944 on insect pests and 1948 on marjorams. She was also a consultant to the Herb Garden at Mount Vernon and president of HSA from 1946 to 1948. This particular article on chervils, Anthriscus cerefolium and Myrrhis odorata, describes her historical readings about the plant sweet Cicely. She also discusses the different species throughout the world, who has used it, and where it grows best. — Lucille Dressler

Wherever we may chance upon them it is true that modern Continued on page 56 55

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As compared with other herbs of ancient fame, descriptions of chervils are brief and singularly free from folklore, magic and imaginary medical virtues. They are prosaically treated and no romance attends their culture. Indeed, one writer disdains their very existence, remarking that this is “only a small genus of mostly small plants common throughout Europe.”

these little plants.

descriptions of the chervils—indigenous or European—have not added much to the observations of the early herbalists.

Cerefolium listed in the famous capitulaire of St. Gall monastery, ninth century, when Charlemagne was king.

Camarius wrote about the “wild chervil with edible tuberous roots” (Chaerophyllum bulbosum) in 1588. Salmon’s English Herbal of 1710 describes and pictures three other species; as we compare their counterparts on the modern herbarium sheets, the woodcuts in these herbals are delightfully true.

Curiously, the herb was cultivated in Brazil in 1647, but no mention was made of its use in America until a century later. It escaped from the gardens into which it had been introduced and is now found growing wild in damp shady spots to its liking. For many years I had known only cerfeuil frisé, [Anthriscus cerefolium ‘Crispum’] this chervil’s delicate little variety with the curled leaves, which I had grown with intermittent success in my Lexington garden.

Needle chervil, Scandix pecten-veneris, was seldom omitted from any list these old authors compiled. According to sixteenth-century Gerarde,“it hath no such pleasant smell as chervil, but it hath long seeds like needles or like the great teeth of a combe whereof it took its name,” and likewise came Scandix, “to sting.”

Acquaintance with real aromatic chervil came about thus. A friend, rummaging through her closet shelves, handed down to me a thick packet of seeds marked “cefeuil,” which she had bought in France. Chervil seed was a rarity not easily obtained, for few gardens grew the herb, and as a dried product it was seldom sold or imported. As the seed was not fresh, I sowed it doubtfully thinking of previous disappointments when seed bought through nursery catalogues either never came up, or yielded only a few delicate little plants of slight savor, though a lovely garnish for the salad bowl. Therefore, I was wholly unprepared for the bed of sturdy, dark green, intensely aromatic plants that the seed produced. The herb looked more like Italian parsley that was beginning to find its way into our market gardens, and it was so called even by the learned. But seeds, flowers and the definite anisate aroma soon belied that diagnosis. I gave over the patch to a Girl Scout who cut and dried the herb most intelligently. She sold it all in bulk to a New York herbalist who was enthusiastic over its success in her herb blends. Since then I have seen true Anthriscus cerefolium growing like a weed in the cool shade of a cedar hedge.

Anthriscus cerefolium (chervil) Photo by Steven Foster.

Toothpick chervil with “leaves like turnips” was well known to the ancients, and a favorite reproduction in their tomes. To quote Salmon,“It hath leaves like wilde carrots and hard quills whereon the seeds do grow which are good to cleanse the teeth and gums.” The salad or garden chervil, with which we are most familiar, survived many names until Linnaeus gave it the present accepted cognomen, Anthriscus cerefolium. The same plant was known to the ancient Greeks as Chaerophyllum, and was eaten as a potherb by the Romans. It has been described as Selinum and now and again we see it referred to as Myrrhis. There is, however, no doubt that this chervil was the

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If fresh and viable, the seed of garden chervil will be ready to harvest in six to eight weeks from time of sowing. Good garden soil more neutral than alkaline is safest. Chervil will not thrive in open sunny places, but if allowed to self-sow in cool ground, seedlings are often found green under the first snowfall. Harvesting should be done in June at the height of the herb’s succulence, and careful drying, not over ninety degrees, will give an aromatic product of the desirable green color. Chervil, fresh or dried, is at its best when used in blends with other herbs, an art which the American cook is learning to appreciate. It is the most significant of herbs in the epicurean “Omelette aux fines herbs.” Chopping it into cream cheese or into the butter

substitutes of today’s rationing with basil, tarragon and chives is a very special way with cook and hostess. Evelyn (1699) insists that,“the tender tips of chervil should never be wanting in our sallets being exceeding wholesome and cheering of the spirits.” Another chervil, commonly described in books on vegetable gardening, is the bulbous-rooted chervil, Chaerophyllum bulbosum. In this species the roots alone are used. They are dark-skinned and of a flavor between a potato and a chestnut.

Sweet chervil, also known as “Sweet Cicely,” is Myrrhis odorata (L.),“that herbe of very good and pleasant smell and taste like unto chervil which hath caused it to be called ‘The Great Sweet Chervil.’” The plant has a plenitude of common names, alluding mostly to the flavor and fragrance of root and leaves, thus myrrh and anise myrrh. It prefers shade, or better, the sifting sunlight of shrub borders. Once established in good, composted soil, this perennial herb will live for years, shedding its long black shining seeds soon after flowering in June. As these take a full year’s resting period before germination, I like to propagate the plant by root division in very early spring 1 2

Osmorhiza claytonii. Photo by Jennifer Anderson at USDA-NRCS Plants Database.

before the first leaf unfolds from the deeply buried crown. There must be an “eye” on every piece broken from the thick, fleshy clump of roots. Seedlings transplant successfully only when one little triangular leaf appears and the diminutive taproot is not broken in the process. Perhaps we have been thinking of sweet chervil too long as a garden ornamental to realize its full value as a flavoring herb of worth. In herb blends and alone, the young green leaves fresh or dried can be used as are those of salad chervil. Gerarde makes note of the robust roots of sweet chervil.“They are most excellent in a salad if they be boiled and after-wards dressed as the cunning cook knoweth better than myself, notwithstanding I used to eate them with oil and vinegar, being first boiled which is very good for old people that are dull and without courage.” Cutting back the first growth of the great fern-like leaves sends up a fresh succulent supply which only the heaviest frosts can vanquish, and all summer the sugary leaves and juicy stems are garden nibbles for the children who call this herb their “candy plant.”

The accepted name for this genus is now Osmorhiza. Now Osmorhiza longistylis.

In my garden, or rather in various shaded spots of the yard where they have seeded themselves, are two lovely wild sweet chervils or “cicelys.”Their generic name, Washingtonia, honors George Washington for reasons I do not know, although Osmorhiza (scented root) is a much more significant synonym. Both are natives of our rich woodlands and not uncommon. Roots of Washingtonia longistylis, the smooth-leaved species, are pungently fragrant and aromatic. They are eagerly sought by our foreign population from Mediterranean shores and eaten, as are those of the other chervils, both boiled and raw. Less pleasant in taste but with decorative, softly incised foliage, the woolly sweet cicely Washingtonia claytonii³, is equally interesting. Other wild chervils have come through the years from their homes in the old world to our shores. They are truly beautiful plants, none grossly coarse, all much alike in their soft compounded foliage, more or less aromatic and with the mericarp fruit of their family. Of ten or more European species of Anthriscus described by

³ Now Osmorhiza claytonii

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A United States agricultural report of 1836 tells of seed sent to this country by a Consul stationed at Munich. He writes,“The great value of this vegetable to American gardens is not wholly its deliciousness to the epicure, but the earliness of its maturity thus supplying the place of potatoes.” This must have been the chervil so popular in Holland at that time and where it was said,“without chervil as a seasoner the Dutch serve scarcely a soup or a sallet.”

Hegi in Flora von Mittel Europa (1906-1931), only two species, according to Britton and Brown, have appeared in America. Both are called “wild chervils.” Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoffm. has been found “as a waif” on Staten Island and “in ballast around seaports.” Anthriscus vulgaris Pers. with its curious spiny fruits is known as “burr chervil.” It was recorded from Nova Scotia, but since has probably spread southward along the coast. Caucalis anthriscus4 (L.) Huds. sometimes called “rough cicely” and “scabby head” from its bristly fruits, is hemlock chervil. It is another adventive from Europe that has spread to the Midwest. Thirty or more species, all natives of warmer parts of the world, are included in the genus Chaerophyllum. Aside from C. bulbosum (L.) of the vegetable garden, only two have been naturalized in America. Teinturier’s chervil, C. tainturieri, Hook., is unusual in that unlike most of these moisture and shade-loving herbs it prefers sun and the dry sandy soil of more southern states. Spreading chervil, C. procumbens (L.) Crantz., is now found in many states and it is not unlikely that our country folk have learned to make use of this wild aromatic. In his book on edible wild plants, Professor Fernald refers to a wild chervil, Cryptotaenia canadensis. His mention of this herb led me to the pages of Peter Kalm’s Travels into America, 1749. There I found the herb under its old name, Sison, meaning “running brook,” an indication of the herb’s predilection for wet places. To quote exactly the words of that indomitable traveler,“It (Sison canadensis) abounds in the woods of all North America. The French call it “cefeuil sauvage,” and make use of it in the spring in green soups like chervil... It is another wild cicely, and universally praised here as a wholesome anti-scorbutic plant, and is one of the best that can be used in the spring.” Although never belittled by the hunter of wild foods, the chervils may be lightly dismissed by authorities as of slight economic importance. Yet it has interested me that in my search for authoritative data, I find no reference to any poisonous or deleterious species. It is quite true that in this era of prodigious plant travel, more chervils may have been introduced and their species as yet unrecorded. But time alone can tell whether these little-known herbs will eventually find themselves esteemed habitants of our gardens.

Now Torilis japonica

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Selected Bibliography Of References Consulted Matthiolus: De Plantis Epitome, ed. Camerarius, 1586. Salmon: The English Herbal, 1710. Gerarde: Herbal, ed. Johnson, 1633. Miller: The Gardener’s Dictionary, abridged edition, 1735-1740. Kalm: Travels into North America, 1749. Stone: The Flora of Chester County (Pa.), with special reference to Flora Cestrica by Dr. Wm. Darlington, 1945. McMahon: American Gardening, 1806. Burr: Field and Garden Vegetables, 1863. Sturtevant: Notes on Edible Plants, ed. Hedrick. Henderson: Handbook of Plants, 1890. Bailey: Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture, revised edition, 1935. Bailey: Principles of Vegetable Gardening, 18th edition, 1941. Fernald and Kinsey: Edible Wild Plants of Eastern North America, 1943. Gray: Manual of Botany, 7th edition, ed. Robinson and Fernald. Britton and Brown: Illustrated Flora of the U.S. And Canada, 2nd edition, 1913. Hegi: Die Flora von Mittel Europa, several volumes, 1906 through 1931. Additional information was obtained from specimens in the Gray Herbarium, Harvard University.

Tasteful Herbs

This article brought forth the history and use of herbal plants to make infusions, decoctions and extracts for enjoyment and for relieving discomforts. The diversity of plants and fruits that were used and the methods of making these infusions are invaluable to preserve and to pass along to the next generation of readers and those seeking pleasure and relief by using plants to enhance their lives. This article is one of the best I have ever read on the subject and worthy of passing along for future use and study. — Loretta Clements

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Tea made from Ceanothus americana (New Jersey tea) was a low-cost tea especially popular before and during the American Revolution. Photo by Steven Foster.

and nearest thing to the original was the New Jersey tea, Ceanothus americanus. Many of our western Ceanothus species may also be used. I have taken the teas and listed them by seasons available. This seems the best way. It would be impossible to list them by flavors because they taste different to different individuals. In the winter there are available bark, twigs and roots of trees. Also included are the evergreens, though some might not find their flavor agreeable.

Fairman R. Jayne •1962

n all probability you have taken a drink of tea, be it Chinese, Indian or other old-world varieties. It is surprising how few people know anything about, or have tried drinking, our own teas made from leaves and other parts of native and naturalized plants. Anybody walking through the woods and fields can find any number of suitable plants, particularly in the northern section of our continent. To list all the plants that may be used for tea would require a large volume as [the definition of tea] is wide in scope:“an infusion, decoction, solution or extract made from some kind of leaves or vegetable or animal substance.” The aboriginal Indians brewed many things for minor aches and pains as well as for the most formidable diseases, especially in winter when food was scarce except for meat. As a result, teas of barks and twigs or roots were used as substitutes for vegetables, and for relieving the discomforts of winter miseries that seem to be still with us in modern times. In the early days when the Europeans came over, the supplies of teas they brought with them did not last long, so they immediately tried to find substitutes. Many learned directly from the Indians which and for what purpose, if any, this bush or that would do as drinks, others no doubt learned the hard way. Many people have owed their lives to these simple drinks in the wintertime. Before the Revolutionary War, native teas were especially popular among the poorer people in the cities, as the imported teas were so expensive. The main substitute varied, of course, by districts, depending on plants that were plentiful. During the Revolution the soldiers of both sides made use of things as they went along. Probably the most palatable

Now Betula alleghaniensis Now Rhododendron tomentosum 3 Now Ulmus rubra 1 2

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Summer teas are made of the flowers and/or flower buds. As the season progresses, leaves are available to use.The making of the drink can be described by one major and most successful recipe. This will not always be usable and deviations should be tried. Make a basic recipe of the leaves and twigs of last season’s growth of the shrub to be used. Denude the twigs of leaves and chop the twigs into smallish pieces one to three inches long. Place the leaves and twigs in cold water and bring to a boil. Continue boiling until some flavor is apparent. Fresh leaves for the actual tea should then be placed in a cheesecloth bag, covered with the decoction and brought to a boil. When [the leaves] have become soft and pliable, remove them and allow to dry in low heat—140°-160°F.

Winter Teas There are approximately ten winter tea [plants] that are easy to obtain. The following are the best and may be fairly easily obtained in woodlands of the northern and southern sections of the country. All the birches are usable, except the white-barked ones, which lack flavor. The sweet birch, Betula lenta, is of the best flavor. The bark and young twigs with buds may be gathered and boiled to bring out a pleasant and sweet drink. The best part of Betula lutea1 (yellow birch) to use is its leaves in summertime. Arborvitae, (Thuja occidentalis), has been used as a camp drink for many purposes, for relieving pain of rheumatism, and as a filling drink. The flavor tends to be rather medicinal but once this feeling is overcome, it is quite delicious. The twigs, bark or root may be used. The boiling of the inner bark gives the strongest flavor. Last season’s growth is also prepared in boiling water. The one plant, which perhaps has the false reputation of being poisonous, is hemlock, because of its association with the death of Socrates. The poison

Ilex glabra (inkberry holly) Photo by W.S. Justice, Courtesy Smithsonian Inst.

There are few people who cannot obtain near at hand, even by reaching out of their windows, some of the commonest of all leaves in winter, those of the

Spicebush tea, Lindera benzoin, is well known in many areas because of its common occurrence in woodlands from Ontario to Florida. Every part of the bush is aromatic and twigs, leaves and bark may be used. The resulting drink is delicate although very aromatic and spicy. The most commonly used native plant is the sassafras [Sassafras albidum]. Its uses have been known for generations and recipes have been handed down from family to family. The roots, or a handful of twigs, are collected and boiled in a pint and a half of water

Fragaria virginiana (strawberry) Photo by G.A. Cooper, Courtesy Smithsonian Inst.

in winter. During the summer the leaves and twigs may be used together. Other evergreen shrubs that bear mention are Ledum palustre2, the Labrador tea, which is quite delicious and improved by the addition of sugar and cream. Many of our native species of elm may be used by stripping the outer bark and using the inner bark. Ulmus fulva3, slippery elm, in particular, is one of the finest and most familiar.

Summer Teas Spring and summer bring forth a variety of drinks, many of which can be served hot or iced. What flavor? Anything from mint to pineapple. However, the difficulty is to find them. One must use care in picking anything, as some plants have counterparts, at least in looks, which are extremely poisonous. In late spring or early summer, one very pleasant plant in the fields and meadow is the sweet vernal grass, Anthoxanthum odoratum. It has bronze to purple spikelets, and the sweet smell that it has while in bloom is also apparent when it is dried in the sun. The flowers, stems and leaves are boiled together producing a drink resembling real tea. Continued on page 62

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hemlock is not our hemlock, Tsuga canadensis, but a member of the parsley family, probably a species of Conium, native to Europe. Hemlock tea [from Tsuga canadensis] is made by boiling the past season’s growth and young twigs. This produces a colorless tea. It must be tended in the brewing until the flavor is right for individual liking. It tastes as the tree smells.

native [American] holly, Ilex opaca, or Ilex glabra, the inkberry holly. These leaves must be dried immediately upon picking, in a slow heat, after which they are ground to a rough powder and mixed with small pieces of stem with the bark removed. When wanted, a small amount of the powder is mixed with cold water and allowed to stand. After a while, add boiling water. The decoction must be strained before drinking to remove floating particles. The south is lucky in having the best of all hollies, Ilex cassine, which is prepared in the same manner. Ilex vomitoria must be prepared in this way or a most unpalatable drink results.

being of any outstanding character unless just mint flavor is wanted. Other members of the mint family have so many uses that I have picked but a few, many of which make not only drinks but are extremely pretty in growth and deserve a planting around the home. The most beautiful to my mind is the bee balm, or Oswego tea, Monarda didyma, found in woodlands and near streams. When in bloom the handsome bracts, varying from bright red to light pink are impossible to miss. The leaves give off a pungent lemon odor when crushed; hence the tea is of that flavor. The leaves may be dried or used in their fresh state, which is best; otherwise the volatile oils will be in the most part dissipated.

Lindera benzoin (spicebush) Photo by R. A. Howard, Courtesy Smithsonian Institution.

A very low-growing plant easily passed over in fields of the eastern section of the country is the strawberry, Fragaria virginiana. Its leaves have a prime use in the making of tea. The pleasant flavor is released by boiling. When in flower and fruit, these parts may also be included, giving a more desirable flavor. Other species may be used but are not nearly as nice and tend to be rather bitter. In early summer, from New Brunswick to Florida and Texas, may be found large cymes of white flowers belonging to the elderberry, Sambucus canadensis, known for the use of its fruit in the making of jam. The flowers, when freshly opened, may be boiled to produce a flavorful and warming drink. The addition of a tiny sprig of mint will enhance the flavor immeasurably. From the ever-important [Fabaceae] family comes a small plant of the large genus Trifolium, or clover. It furnishes a delicate and aromatic tea by boiling the dried papilionaceous flower heads. Several clovers may be used for this purpose, but the best is white clover, Trifolium repens, which has naturalized in the United States from Europe and Asia. Some say that overindulgence in the drink may produce bloating, and recommend that it should be drunk sparingly. There are few that have not chewed upon mint leaves or have not used them in teas or sauces. There are several flavors if the right species is chosen. Mentha ×rotundifolia, naturalized from Europe and now found upon dry wasteland, gives a faint flavor of apple. Its close relative, the variegated form [known as] pineapple mint, releases that flavor admirably while the leaves are still tender and in the young stage. If picked when old, the flavor is just too medicinal for most likings. Other mints may be used, the flavor not 4

Now Dasiphora fruticosa subsp. fruticosa

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If one would like a minty taste in tea, the best choice would be the Maryland dittany, Cunila origanoides. An infusion of the fresh leaves makes a warming drink. The plant is found in dry woods from New York to Florida and west to Texas. It is probably best known as an ornamental border subject in small gardens. A tall perennial reaching a height of four feet and producing lovely blue flowers in terminal spikes is the giant fennel hyssop, Agastache foeniculum, which produces a tea with a decidedly anise taste. One plant, because of its size, would contain enough leaves to be of use in a small household over the summer months. Another common plant, American pennyroyal, Hedeoma pulegioides, is found in dry fields throughout the eastern seaboard and west to Minnesota and Arkansas. The leaves have aromatic properties, which gives it the name Hedys Osme (sweet smell), resembling the English pennyroyal. A tea drink is made by gathering and crushing fresh leaves, placing them in cold water, bringing them to a boil, and removing them when the taste is suitable. Goldenrod tea is made from the plants of the genus Solidago, the name meaning “to make whole,” referring to its curative properties. Solidago odora is the best species. The leaves are used preferably while fresh. When crushed they give off a strong anise scent from which the tea receives its flavor. One plant that was once plentiful in the woods of the eastern United States and that now is almost gone is the ginseng, Panax quinquefolius. The roots were used by many in our country, [and were] also exported to China. They are parsnip-like and aromatic, while the leaves, when brewed, will make a fair tea. Potentilla fruticosa4 leaves may be picked and dried in the open air. After being thoroughly dried they must

be stored in a tight tin and used as wanted. The plant played an important part as a tea substitute in the Revolutionary War. Moxie plum, Chiogenes hispidula5, found in cool, moist, coniferous forests in the northern sections of the country from Labrador south to northern New York and in mountain areas of North Carolina and as far west as the Great Lakes, is known for its delicate white juicy and acid fruit found from June to September. These are eaten either fresh or cooked and the leaves of this small trailing plant may be made into tea having the taste of wintergreen.

A low spreading shrub found in the boggy lands near the shore is the more popularly known sweet gale, Myrica gale. This has been used for generations for the specific purpose of tea making by curing the leaves collected from spring to autumn. If a decoction is made as previously suggested, a very palatable drink results. In northern country districts it is still steadfastly used as a preventive and/or cure for colds. Many years ago, the witchhazel, Hamamelis virginiana, was shrouded in secrecy by those who practiced the occult arts. Its medicinal value has always been held in high esteem, but this has never amounted to a great deal except for ointments and liniments. It does, however, make a pleasant drink, which the Iroquois found quite delicious with meals. A decoction is made from the leaves, twigs and bark, which also may be used in the wintertime without the leaves.

Comptonia peregrina (sweet fern)

Photo by Steven Foster.

One last tea worth discussion is apple tea. It may be made from apples that have been stored or from freshly picked fruit. After trying both, there is little doubt that the latter is the best. One medium apple is sliced into two cups of cold water. Bring to a boil and leave for fifteen minutes or more. This method produces a drink that is a bit pallid, but if the apples are allowed to soak over several hours in warm water with one or two cloves it improves a great deal. Many of these teas are very much enhanced with such spices as cloves, or a spot of cinnamon or a piece of lemon peel. These must be tried out by the individual, as the cooking time or when the plant parts were picked vary the taste greatly. In these days when maple sugar is so expensive and scarce, other sweeteners must be resorted to. A mixture of cinnamon and sugar is a very good one, sugar with the addition of synthetic maple flavor or almond flavor has proved to be quite admirable. Another word of caution, when obtaining any wild plant for eating, always know and be sure what it is you are picking.

Among our prettier plants, although a great nuisance to grub out of neglected areas, are the blackberry and red raspberry, known because of their fruits, which can be bought at local stands or picked in the wild. The leaves may also be used to make a tea. Rubus occidentalis [black raspberry] may be harmful. Our native persimmon, Diospyros virginiana, known throughout the southern states for its fruit, has leaves that can be picked and then boiled to obtain a tea tasting very much like sassafras. If a quantity is picked and dried in a low heat then stored in an airtight tin, they will last for some time without losing much flavor.

Now Gaultheria hispidula

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Throughout spring, summer and fall the fragrant leaves of sweet fern, Comptonia peregrina, are used in the making of tea. It is popular in the northern regions as a warming drink during the cold and damp autumn evenings. The plants may be found on sterile meadows and woodlands from Prince Edward Island [and] south to northern Georgia. The leaves are hard and dry to touch and are best treated by boiling and drying slowly in the oven. Afterwards use them as wanted.

Tasteful Herbs

This thorough and well-written article on the caper bush stood out because of the in-depth research and information offered on a plant most familiar for its use as a condiment, but one not found in many gardens. Perhaps honoring the article in The Best of the Herbarist will encourage members to grow and study this plant. — Jo Sellers Robert E. Bond • 1990

apers grow well in mild climates, but few people in the United States have ever grown them. Cultivation is so rare that the caper plant is not listed in the popular Sunset’s New Western Garden Book, and is only rarely found in specialized nurseries or seed catalogs. It has the reputation of being a difficult plant to grow, but in my opinion, most problems that people encounter with this species are caused by the fact that gardeners everywhere feel compelled to meddle with every new, special or prized plant. Be advised that the caper bush prefers to be ignored, or better yet, grazed upon by sheep and goats and trampled, or ruthlessly pruned, not doted upon upon. Capers have been used as a condiment for millennia, and are easily made by pickling the flower buds of Capparis spinosa, the caper bush. It is, according to Bailey (1935),“... A straggling shrub which grows out of old walls, rocks and rubbish in Mediterranean regions and India.” He notes that in the United States it is a “... greenhouse plant in the north, and suited to the open in Florida and California.” Large commercial groves are found in France, Italy, Spain, Algeria and Mexico. The caper bush is a member of the Capparidaceae, a family of about 37 tropical, subtropical and temperate genera of herbs, shrubs and trees from which the genera Capparis, Cleome, Crateva and Polanisia are cultivated. The genus Capparis contains perhaps as many as 300 species worldwide. Tanaka (1976) lists 15 of them as food plants, all confined to the Old World and Pacific islands.

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Pliny recommends that capers “... be sown in dry localities more particularly, the plot being hollowed out and surrounded with an embankment of stones erected around it: if this precaution is not taken, it will spread all over the adjoining land, and entail sterility upon the soil ... it thrives best of all in sandy soil...”

It would be reasonable to assume that fresh caper buds might have better flavor before preservation, but this is definitely not the case. Raw buds are bland, to say the least, and the characteristic “caper” flavor is missing. The unique gustatory sensation of capers develops during the pickling process when a peculiar glycoside (glucocapparide) of the caper bud is split by the My prize ten-year-old caper plant action of acetic/hydrochloric grows vigorously in the corner of a acid to create capric acid. In raised bed filled with depleted soil; small quantities capric acid it is watered irregularly and fertilized is quite pleasant, but when infrequently as is my custom. It overly abundant, its odor is is occasionally pruned with vigor reminiscent of wet goats. Note when I am in a destructive mood. that the Latin word for billy All authorities state that caper goat is caper. Rhutin may also plants should receive full sun, but The buds of Caltha palustris (marsh marigold) are contribute to the flavor in this splendid shrub lives against capers. also pickled like those of capers. Photo by Robin the west wall of my house with Siktberg. Preparation of capers is really afternoon shade provided by a quite easy, although somewhat white sapote tree. It never layers in time-consuming. The best practice is to go out in the my yard, but in some years seedlings are profuse. It is a morning (every other day if you are busy) and pick all very happy and productive plant. of the very small flower buds. Wash and dry them in the Caper plants may be started from seed in pots kept sun for the remainder of the day, or wilt especially clean above 65°F, although only about 10% of very fresh seed buds in the shade for a few hours, and then completely will germinate in about 10 days and another immerse them in salt-saturated white wine vinegar. I 5-10% over the next month or two. Once seeds have recommend the addition of crushed fresh tarragon dried out they become dormant, and this condition leaves to this marinade, as it definitely improves the is not always easy to rectify. Usual methods to break final flavor. After several weeks the capers will have dormancy include soaking to rehydrate the tiny seeds. “cured” and be ready to eat. Some of my friends then scald them in boiling water, There are, of course, other, but not necessarily better, others place them in the refrigerator or freezer for a ways to prepare capers. Some people just salt them and couple of months, and some do both. set them aside. Creasy (1982) recommends pouring a Whatever you do, you should not count on a high strained mixture of boiling vinegar, crushed mustard, germination rate. When volunteers are numerous, they dill and celery seed, garlic, water, brown sugar and salt, can be dug up and potted. The most reliable method of over a quantity of washed capers. By trial and error, the propagation, however, is by cuttings, preferably assisted dedicated caper enthusiast will eventually find his or by bottom heat. Continued on page 66 65

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This bush is suited to the Mediterranean climate that is found in Southern California; farther north plants must be carefully planted in a well-protected area or brought into a greenhouse during the winter. Its requirements are roughly similar to those of rosemary, marjoram, or thyme; i.e., sandy, well-drained soil and full sun are ideal. Under the best of circumstances a caper plant can become a large globular shrub, but should be pruned long before that time to enhance bud production. Once established, these plants are droughtresistant, need little or no fertilizer and only occasional pruning. They are relatively free from predation, although little green cabbage butterfly caterpillars frequently nibble on their leaves.

The term spinosa suggests that caper plants are spiny, and some are spinier than others, but none are on the order of the Mexican lime or Pyracantha. Heywood, in the Flora Europaea, notes that “… there has been selection for large flower buds in the typical plant (which is probably introduced in the western part of its distribution) for their use as a condiment.” The species is variable and probably hybridizes with other Capparis spp. in its native range, thus leading to a good deal of taxonomic confusion. Once pickled, however, the flower buds of any caper bush become the capers of commerce.

her favorite recipe (or commercial brand). I also recommend avoiding aluminum or iron pans whenever working with brine vinegar. Salt and acetic acid, for the non-chemist, should be considered a corrosive similar to weak hydrochloric acid; it stains aluminum, rusts iron, and tarnishes silver. It will also discolor capers and other foods contained in vessels that are not made of stainless steel or ceramic materials. Capers, homemade or commercial, must be kept covered with their own saturated brine vinegar solution and placed in the refrigerator after opening in order to retain full flavor and to prevent the growth of mold. Perhaps the necessity to keep capers covered is why commercial capers invariably come in those tall, skinny bottles. Preparing capers is as much as fun as gathering saffron stamens, and I mostly let my buds flower and fruit. If the buds are left on the plants, striking, delicately-scented flowers develop. These consist of four, two- to three-inch long whitish petals with many long purple stamens. In my yard they bloom from spring into fall and always emerge early in the morning, only to wilt by afternoon. Foster and Louden (1980) think that they are so attractive that people should not miss “... The large and pretty flowers. Better to buy the bottled capers and keep your plants intact.” I submit that caper blossoms are beautiful in the garden, although fleeting, but with their seductive aroma and distinctive flavor they would be sorely missed in my salads and other fare. I find them especially appealing when placed alternately with society garlic flowers (Tulbaghia violacea) on the top of curried deviled eggs. Another way to enjoy caper flowers is to pick a spray while they are still in the bud and place the stem in 1 2

water. The flowers then bloom one at a time, each lasting the whole day, rather than fading by noon. This technique allows the distinctive flowers to be enjoyed at luncheon and at dinner. There are other ways to prepare capers. The small, tight flower buds, called nonpareil or “nonsuch” capers, are considered by many chefs to have the best flavor. Personally, I prefer the larger, more mature buds, the capot. The immature seed pod, the taperon, is pickled and eaten in Spain and Portugal, but the flavor is not as pleasant, and little annoying seeds regularly get stuck between one’s teeth. Those with a fondness for ethnobotany will be interested to know about an unusual condiment that is sold in small towns in Spain and Portugal. Stobart (1980) reports that entire young branch tips with buds and small leaves, called tallos, are pickled, and sold locally. I have not prepared or tried such a concoction, but it sounds as if it was created to go with olive oil, sardines and slices of lemon, red pepper, tomatoes and endive or garden rocket (ruccola, rocquette). Several related species are used as capers regionally. C. aphyla1 is found from the Sahara through India. The buds are pickled in the usual fashion, but when fresh are also eaten as a potherb. In the Sudan the fresh fruits are consumed. In India buds of C. brevispina are likewise made into pickles. Safford (1905) reports that near the end of the last century, a thriving export business of C. mariana capers from Guam took place. Bad weather coupled with bad management apparently brought this commerce to an end. Four unrelated species are also sometimes recommended (as by Rombauer and Becker, 1931) as caper substitutes.

Now Capparis decidua Now Proboscidea louisianica subsp. fragrans

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The best of the lot come from the young seedpods of the garden nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus). Like capers, they would be washed, dried in the sun and pickled in brine or brine vinegar for several days. Clifton (1983) recommends boiling a pinch of salt, a few bay leaves and peppercorns in vinegar, cooling the solution and adding wilted young seedpods to marinate for a month or more. Prepared either way, these pickled nasturtium buds have a mustard-like flavor and are quite good. An additional value in growing nasturtiums is that they are perennial in mild climates and provide peppery leaves and colorful flowers that are delicious in salads. Buds of the marsh marigold (Caltha palustris) have been pickled much like capers for centuries in the manner discussed above. This plant is native to North America and Eurasia, where the leaves have also been eaten as a potherb. The flowers are also used to adulterate or substitute for saffron. Some authors have considered this plant to be poisonous, but it is, nevertheless, widely eaten. The unicorn plant (Proboscidia louisianica) is native to the south central United States and has escaped from cultivation along the east coast. Its dried mature fruit and those of the related P. fragrans2 are popular in dried flower arrangements. This annual plant is quite showy, and its young fruits are tender, and when pickled they make a fine substitute for capers. Rombauer (1931), who calls the plant “martynia,” after its old generic name, and Medsger (1939), both recommend it for this purpose. Buds of the caper spurge (Euphorbia lathyrus3) are sometimes advocated for use as capers and its seeds as a substitute for coffee. The fruits and seeds of this plant have a documented reputation for being infrequently

References Bailey, L. H. 1914. Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture. New York: Macmillan. Bailey, L. H. And E. Z. Bailey. 1978. Hortus Third. New York: Macmillan. Clifton, C. 1983. Edible Flowers. London & elsewhere:The Bodley Head. Euphorbia lathyris (caper spurge) Photo by R. A. Howard, courtesy of Smithsonian Inst.

Proboscidea louisianica (unicorn plant) Patrick J. Alexander @USDA-NRCS Plants Database.

Capers are traditionally used in sauces eaten with fish or fatty meat such as mutton and in salads or hors d’oeuvres. Classic French sauces featuring capers include tartare, remoulade, ravigote and sometimes vinaigrette. I like them in many other dishes and feel that they blend especially well with olive oil, garlic, tomatoes, grated lemon rind, bacon, fish, and vegetables. A favorite of mine is “peas with capers.” [To make this dish,] sauté half a chopped onion with two tablespoons of large capers in olive oil over very low heat. Butter or ghee may be substituted if desired. Using only ghee or peanut oil with butter makes the cooking process go faster as higher heat is possible. When the onion pieces become translucent, add a cup of fresh peas, or frozen peas that have been thawed and rolled on a paper towel to remove moisture. Stir for a minute or two, cover and cook a bit longer. Salt, lemon juice, freshly cooked bacon bits and red or green pepper can be added for flavor and crunch. Add capers at a ratio of 1:4 to the peas, reheat and serve. 3

The caper bush is really easy and fun to grow. The flowers are pretty and tasty, and capers do wonders for many foods. The appreciation of capers is probably an acquired taste, and I have observed that this can sometimes be a profound emotional issue. My younger daughter still carefully picks each caper from her food and discards it. On the other hand, according to Stobart (1980), “... Addicts eat them on bread and butter when nobody is looking.” I plead guilty to the latter.

Foster, G. B. And R. F. Louden. 1980. Park’s Success with Herbs. Greenwood, SC: Geo. W. Park Seed Co. Heywood, V. H. 1964. “Capparis L.” Flora Europaea V. 1, p. 259. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Medsger, O. P. 1939. Edible Wild Plants. New York: Collier Macmillan Publications. New Western Garden Book. 1979. Ed. by Sunset Books. Menlo Park, CA: Lane Publishing Co. Pliny (Caius Plinius Secundus, d. 79). 1893. The Natural History. Translated and annotated by Bostock and Riley. Covent Garden and New York: Geo. Bell and Sons. See Book XIX, Chap. 48. Rombauer, I. S. And M. R. Becker. 1931, etc. Joy of Cooking. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill. Safford, W. E. 1905. Useful Plants of the Island of Guam. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. Stobart,Tom. 1980. The Cook’s Encyclopedia. London: B. T. Batsford Ltd. Reprinted 1982 by Papermac, London. Tanaka, Tyozaburo. 1976. Tanaka’s Cyclopedia of Edible Plants of the World. Tokyo: Keigaku Publishing Co.

Now Euphorbia lathyris

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and unexpectedly poisonous. For this reason, I cannot recommend use of any part of this plant for culinary purposes.

Another delightful dish featuring capers is asparagus vinaigrette. Take a sufficient quantity of fresh, large and fat asparagus spears, and break off and discard the tough bases or use them later for stock. Blanch the spears briefly, and immediately place them in cold water to stop further cooking. Drain and lay them on a flat dish, covering with seasoned rice vinegar (available in Oriental markets), cover with plastic wrap and store in the refrigerator. Do not use regular rice, apple or wine vinegar. When ready to serve, drain and top with chopped boiled egg white, capers and pimento for color and taste.

Creasy, Rosalind. 1982. The Complete Book of Edible Landscaping. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books.

This attractive exposition and history of Cajun-Creole cuisine by masters of their craft is good enough to eat. Given the availability of principal ingredients, readers are invited to explore the mysteries of roux and herbal seasonings with a Creole emphasis. — Flavia Redelmeier

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A Taste of Louisiana Foods and Seasonings Madalene Hill and Gwen Barclay • 2001

Unfortunately, during the last decade, visitors to New Orleans and other outposts of good cooking in South Louisiana received a jolt with fiery hot dishes from trendy restaurant chefs, offered more for their shock value than taste appeal. Blackened “anything” is not a Louisiana tradition, and neither is food heavily laced with cayenne pepper, Tabasco sauce AND copious amounts of black pepper! Good Louisiana food was always well seasoned, yes, but obviously, something was lost in the translation in the search for new treats for the tourists. One of the most interesting things about the food of South Louisiana comes from the global political events that influenced what and how the people eat. France originally settled the Louisiana territory in the seventeenth century, but upon examining favorite dishes, it is evident other factors enter into the picture. How did all that sausage and black pepper get into the diet? This was thanks to the German farmers who soon followed the first French settlers. And what about the artichokes that are such a treat in New Orleans, slipping into everything from soups to entrees? These are just two examples of food traditions that came with each influx of immigrants arriving on Louisiana’s shores. Potatoes, both white, and sweet yams, are a staple in Louisiana, thanks to the Irish and residents of the Caribbean islands, yet neither is native to the region. The folk tales say that okra seeds were brought by early slaves as part of their body decorations of various dried pods and seeds. Italian touches include the artichokes

Cultural Influences in Louisiana, in addition to American Indian (in chronological order): French German Spanish

Nova Scotian (Acadian)

Carribean

Irish African Italian

learned of the land from the native Indians who were generally helpful to the early settlers. Louisiana was actually governed by several different countries through the years, and its food was influenced by as many immigrants as was Texas’s cuisine. With the arrival of the first explorer, La Salle, from France in 1682, Louisiana was destined to have its culture shaped by a number of outside forces. As various plans were undertaken—and abandoned—in the early years to develop a viable community in this sometimes inhospitable land, the Louisiana territory was given to Spain in 1763. It was during the Spanish reign that the Acadians, who had been ejected from Nova Scotia in Canada by the English, began to arrive on the scene. The name “Acadiana” was corrupted to “Cajun” through the years while the Spanish name “criollo” was given to all residents of European background; it soon became “Creole.” The Acadians eventually left New Orleans along with new settlers imported from France by the Spanish. In the bayou country, they established the communities of Lafayette, Breaux Bridge and St. Martinville, and came to be known as “Cajuns” by the Indians, a corruption of the original name. The food associated with the Cajuns was Continued on page 70 69

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Tasteful Herbs

ince the early 1980s when South Louisiana burst upon the American food scene with blackened red fish and the tummy-filling soup known as gumbo, there has been much misinformation and many misconceptions about this verdant patch on the Gulf Coast. Most Americans associate a preponderance of seafood, especially shrimp and crawfish, with the cuisine, but there is so much more to enjoy. Early South Louisianans learned to depend upon the veritable storehouse of ingredients that abounded in the woods, bayous, and sky. The near tropical weather made it possible to have a variety of fresh vegetables and fruit at almost any time of the year; salad greens, small vegetables and tender herbs happily grew in small gardens of the swept yards of sharecroppers and in the well-tended kitchen gardens of the early plantations which could feed huge numbers. Small game and the harvest of the sea and streams provided sustenance for all.

as mentioned, and the tradition of lusty tomato-based sauces laced with garlic (with or without pasta), as well as the delicate, but rich, cream-based sauces so loved in New Orleans. The influence of the Caribbean islands cannot be overlooked, as French refugees came, and then traders and businessmen who moved freely back and forth in the early years. African slaves often made a stopover in Haiti and other West Indian islands, or were brought with their French owners, providing the pungent spices that enlivened the food. A little-known group from the Canary Islands is still celebrating its heritage in St. Bernard Parish, down-river from New Orleans. They are Louisiana’s largest Spanish-based culture and have made rich contributions to its food with the use of olive oil instead of butter, copious amounts of seafood, which reflects its island heritage, and inclusion of rice in much of the food. Finally, all these influences were meshed with what could be

hearty country fare, based on what was available and Spanish paella which emerged as jambalaya in Louisiana could be easily prepared in the rough backwoods. One —without the saffron! pot stews, braised meats, roasted wild game—this was While the Cajuns scratched out a living in the outback, the fare of the Cajuns. Seasonings, often gathered from the Creole (Criollo) residents of New Orleans became the wild, such as the filé (powdered sassafras leaves) or more affluent, especially after the Louisiana Purchase. cultivated in the tidy gardens, were very important to They were of dignified European society and rigidly the flavor of the simple food. Aromatic green onions, clannish, living in the old quarter of the city. Their food bell peppers and celery—a specific variety that could also was much more elegant and refined, signifying the be grown in the warm climate—were known as the influence of upper class French immigrants. Delicate “holy trinity” and are still included in practically every seasonings in sauces, a wide variety of cultivated dish. The Cajuns learned to make the dark, fragrant roux vegetables and fruit, as well as farm-raised meats which is the foundation flavor of so many dishes, slowly are the hallmarks of Creole cuisine. Some residents cooking the flour and fat to varying shades of brown. maintain that the classic Creole dishes are the real Roux acts as a thickening food of Louisiana. But agent and has its origins The Cajun/Creole Seasoning Pantry: today it is probably in classical French cuisine. • Aromatic vegetables: bell peppers, celery, garlic, an amalgamation of mushrooms and onions (especially green, often called The Cajuns also depended both city and country shallots in Louisiana) upon such staples as traditions that makes • Cane syrup and honey dried beans and corn, as up the backbone of the • Grainy Creole mustard well as smoked meats food culture. To most • Fresh greens, both mild and bitter - arugula, collards, and sausage, which were people, the food, along mustard, spinach and turnip preserved to last longer with the music of the in the hot climate. These • Herbs: basil, bay, filé powder, horseradish, oregano, parsarea is the overriding ley (especially flat-leaf), rosemary, sage, savory, thyme hearty settlers learned characteristic of South • Liquors and liqueurs, especially bourbon, anise-flavored and adapted their food mixtures and various bitters Louisiana. And we traditions with each new • Roux - browned fat and flour mixture maintain that the group that came to their • Smoked tasso ham and andouille sausage, both mild and food of Louisiana is shores, embracing sweet hot - used for flavoring a truly new cuisine potatoes and coffee of • Spices: allspice, anise, chiles (mild and hot, Tabasco Sauce that has developed the Americas as well as and other hot condiments), cinnamon, clove, cumin seed, A crawfish boil.

•

coriander seed, fennel seed, nutmeg and paprika Worcestershire Sauce

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in this country. It is completely independent of surrounding areas, and dependent upon the raw ingredients of Louisiana, but woven together from ingredients and traditions of so many separate threads. Don’t underestimate the importance of the joie de vivre of its people, always ready for dancing, good food and a party. What better criteria could be applied as a test for a new cuisine and culture?

The recipes that follow reflect modern techniques and trends, all firmly fixed on a foundation of over 300 years of wonderful food. We don’t live in Louisiana, but Southeast Texas is close enough to smell the gumbo simmering, and the shrimp and crabs boiling. The flavors are addictive and made even better with fresh herbs from the garden. Use our recipes as a “jumping off place,” all the while remembering the thin threads which connect each of us to our ancestors. Nowhere is it more

CAJUN ROUX

Roux is the foundation flavor of many Cajun-Creole dishes. Make a large batch and keep in the freezer! ¾ to 1 cup fat of choice: lard, vegetable oil, chicken or duck fat (never butter-it burns too easily) 1 cup all-purpose flour

In a large cast iron skillet or other heavy shallow pan, heat oil until almost smoking. Gradually add flour, stirring constantly with a long-handled spoon or whisk. Cook over medium heat until roux reaches desired color; cook about 35 minutes for a peanut-buttercolored roux or 50 to 55 minutes for a dark, red-brown roux. Black roux will require at least one hour. When ready, remove from heat and while still stirring, add chopped aromatic vegetables such as onion, celery and garlic; this will cool roux down to avoid burning. If roux is not to be used immediately in a recipe, pour into another heavy metal pan or mixing bowl; stir until cooled to stop cooking. If made ahead, cover and refrigerate for several days, or freeze up to six months. Yield: ¾ to 1 cup without any vegetables SPICY CAJUN HERB BLEND A fresh version of the familiar dried mixtures which can be adapted to individual tastes. 1 tablespoon ground red pepper (cayenne) 2 teaspoons freshly ground black pepper 2 tablespoons paprika 1 cup firmly packed fresh basil leaves and tender stems ½ cup each firmly packed fresh oregano and parsley leaves and tender stems ¼ cup each firmly packed fresh rosemary and thyme leaves 4-6 fresh bay leaves; tough center stem removed and leaves cut into several small pieces ½ to ¾ cup vegetable oil to moisten 2 tablespoons each ground cumin and coriander seeds 2 or more teaspoons chopped fresh garlic 1 teaspoon salt Combine all ingredients in a food processor, adding enough oil to moisten. Herbal material should be well coated with oil. To keep oil-based mixtures fresh and safe, use immediately or store up to two years in an airtight container in freezer. Use fresh blends in very small amounts; flavor is highly concentrated. When using with dishes that have a dark roux as a base, do not add fresh herb seasonings until after liquids are added. Fresh herbs will burn easily and the flavor will be destroyed. Yield: 2 cups Note: Cayenne may be reduced to suit personal taste. Fresh hot chiles may be substituted for cayenne, preferably red.

Continued on page 72 71

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Even though in years past it was common for dried herbs to be used in most dishes simply because of availability, and definitely in commercially prepared seasoning mixtures so popular today, we prefer to use fresh herbs. The flavor is far superior and they are easily grown, especially in this climate. We have experimented with combinations that are used in favorite dishes and began to realize that any Cajun or Creole dry seasoning mixture could be reproduced with fresh herbs. Using fresh garlic and onion instead of dehydrated, along with the traditional spices, such as paprika, fennel or coriander seed, black or white peppercorns, ground clove or nutmeg, it is possible to create delicious seasoning blends based on fresh flavors. We sometimes substitute dried thyme—a good quality whole leaf type, simply for ease of preparation.

Recipes

HERB GARDEN SHRIMP ETOUFFÉE

Etouffée actually means “smothered,” referring to meats, poultry or seafood cooked in a thick liquid sauce, usually with aromatic vegetables. This recipe is updated to take advantage of fragrant fresh herbs.

¾ cup vegetable oil, lard, duck or chicken fat 1 cup flour 2 cups coarsely chopped yellow or white onions 1 tablespoon mashed garlic 1 cup coarsely chopped green bell pepper 2 cups thinly sliced celery 1 to 2 tablespoons tomato paste 3 cups rich seafood, shrimp or chicken stock 2 tablespoons chopped fresh oregano 2 teaspoons chopped fresh thyme 3 large bay leaves, fresh or dried—whole or cut into several pieces if quite large ½ to 1 teaspoon freshly ground black pepper ¼ to ½ teaspoon cayenne pepper 2 pounds peeled and de-veined medium shrimp ½ teaspoon salt 2 tablespoons sliced fresh basil ¼ cup chopped fresh parsley, preferably flat-leaf 8 green onions, finely chopped 6 to 8 cups hot cooked white rice Additional chopped parsley for garnish Make roux in a heavy 12-inch iron skillet as directed; stir constantly until dark red-brown. Remove from heat and immediately add onions, garlic, bell pepper and celery to cool down roux, stirring until vegetables are slightly wilted and transparent, about 5 minutes. Stir in tomato paste, stock, oregano, thyme and bay leaves, mixing well. Place pan on burner, reduce heat and simmer uncovered about 30 to 40 minutes, stirring often. Add black pepper and cayenne, and mix well; stir in shrimp and cook only until color changes, about 8-10 minutes. Season with salt and add basil, parsley and green onions, cooking until hot through; remove from heat. Remove bay leaves. Serve with fluffy rice, either mounded on individual plates, topped with etouffee or separately in bowls. Sprinkle etouffée with more parsley for garnish. Variation: Chopped fresh or canned tomatoes may be used in place of tomato paste. A seasoning blend of fresh or dried herbs may be substituted for individual herbs. Some cooks do not traditionally use a roux for etouffée, relying upon the reduction of liquids for thickening. Caution: If preparing ahead, be careful about adding cayenne too early; the longer it cooks, the hotter it becomes. Yield: 6 to 8 servings CREOLE REMOULADE DRESSING This version of the traditional topping for shrimp, crabmeat or crawfish salad is based on a recipe from a longgone Houston restaurant. 2 hard-cooked egg yolks, mashed 2 cloves garlic, mashed

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1½ tablespoons dark Creole mustard 1½ cups mayonnaise 1 tablespoon paprika 1½ tablespoons grated horseradish 1 tablespoon Worcestershire sauce ¼ to ½ teaspoon Tabasco Sauce or other hot condiment 2 tablespoons white wine or cider vinegar 2 tablespoons chopped fresh basil 1 heaping tablespoon chopped fresh parsley, preferably flat-leaf Salt to taste Combine all ingredients in a medium bowl, using a rubber spatula. Taste for heat and salt; adjust as needed. There should be a nice “bite” in the back of the throat from Tabasco sauce. Dressing should be highly seasoned to serve with boiled shrimp, crabmeat or crawfish on salad greens and vegetables. Yield: about 2 cups. CAJUN CORN MAQUE CHOUX Every Cajun family has its own version of this summer dish of fresh corn. Ours has fresh herbs and bacon! 6 to 8 slices of bacon, diced 2 tablespoons butter 1 cup chopped onion 1 large green bell pepper, seeded and chopped 2 medium cloves garlic, mashed 4 cups fresh corn kernels 2 large tomatoes, chopped in ½-inch pieces 2 to 3 tablespoons sugar ½ teaspoon freshly ground black pepper ¼ to ½ teaspoon ground red pepper (cayenne) 1 teaspoon salt 2 tablespoons each chopped fresh oregano and flat-leaf parsley 1 teaspoon chopped fresh thyme 1 cup chicken stock 1 cup light cream (half and half) 2 eggs 2 tablespoons shredded fresh basil (do not cut until just before serving macque choux) In a heavy 12-inch skillet over medium heat, cook bacon until crisp; set aside to drain on paper towels. Reserve 2 tablespoons bacon fat in skillet and add butter. Gradually add onions, peppers and garlic, stirring often. Cook until hot through; stir in corn and tomatoes, mixing well. Add sugar, pepper, cayenne, salt, oregano and thyme, along with stock. Reduce heat to keep mixture at a simmer and cook until liquid has almost evaporated, stirring often. Stir in ½ cup cream and continue cooking 3-4 minutes. Beat eggs with remaining ½ cup cream and add to pan in a slow steady stream. Cook 2 to 3 minutes until thickened, stirring constantly. Serve hot, topped with crisp bacon and basil shreds. Yield: 6 servings

Roux Fundamentals: 1. Mixture is extremely hot when cooking and if splashed on the skin, sticks like sugar syrup. Exercise caution and make sure all distractions such as children and telephone are removed before beginning to cook. 2. Use a long handled metal or wooden spoon (be prepared for it to have a “toasted” look) or large, piano wire type whisk. Have heavy hot pad ready for use on handle of iron skillet.

Important Dishes to Louisiana Most raw ingredients are gathered wild or cultivated within the state: Fish and shellfish, from the Gulf of Mexico and inland fresh and salt water streams

•

Pork, both fresh and smoked

4. When preparing roux, if the mixture begins to stick or brown too quickly, remove pan from heat and stir rapidly to cool slightly. Return pan to heat when you are in control of roux. This is why it is so important to keep your eyes on roux at all times and not be distracted. That is when it will burn or you will get burned!

•

Poultry of all types

•

Wild game, including boar, duck, froglegs, goose, rabbit, turtle, alligator and venison

5. Do not place iron skillet or metal bowl of hot roux on polyethylene or plastic cutting board, or counter top; they will melt and burn. Roux can be in excess of 500°F when dark point is reached.

•

Vegetables: artichokes, corn, eggplant, mirliton/chayote squash, okra and tomatoes, dried beans, especially red

6. Some cooks do not use a roux when preparing dishes with okra or file powder, both of which are natural thickening agents. The total amount of roux can be reduced, or just the flour to produce a thinner mixture. There are some schools of thought that blacker roux does not produce as much thickening capacity, but this may only be a matter of opinion.

•

Fruit: bananas, figs, peaches, satsumas (tangerines) and strawberries

•

Coffee with chicory

•

Sausages, both smoked and fresh, especially boudin blanc, a rice-based blend

•

Soups such as bisque and gumbo—chicken, duck, sausage, seafood or only greens for Lent

•

Casseroles and other onepot dishes, including smothered meats, poultry and seafood

•

Brunch and breakfast dishes, including eggs, grits, breads and beverages

•

Breads and pastries—crusty French or Italian loaves, beignets, King’s Cake and meat pies

•

Rice - Rice - Rice

3. If black specks appear in roux, the flour has burned and the mixture must be discarded as it will taste burned and never mix properly with liquids.

Gumbo contains many of the foods important in Cajun and Creole cuisine.

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•

Founders’ H

Dedication of the

In 1956, a garden dedicated to the Founders of The Herb Society of America was dedicated in Wenham, Massachusetts. HSA was just 31 years old, and three of the founders were present at the dedication. Read on for a description of the ceremony in the actual words of those present. — Robin Siktberg

Author Unknown • 1957 n October 4th, 1956, sixty-four members of the Herb Society of America gathered in Wenham for a picturesque ceremony. As it was timed to coincide with a meeting of the New England Unit, which was the donor, the group included its members, others from the West Coast to the East and from North to South as its guests, five past presidents and three of the four surviving Founders, Mrs. Greenslet being unfortunately ill. And as this garden is of interest to the entire Society, it seems fitting to give the order of exercises here for all to read. Miss Susan Handy, Chairman of the N. E. Unit, greeted Mrs. Edward B. Cole, Mrs. A. C. Burrage, Jr., Mrs. E. L. Mitchell, and Miss Margaret Norton representing her mother, Mrs. Charles Norton, and presented herb corsages. She also paid tribute to Miss Madeleine Harding, designer of the garden, and her committee for a most successful achievement. The spot selected for the planting was around the foundation of the ancient house now occupied by the Wenham Historical Society, on the very site of “Pastor Gerrish’s hort-yard.” In presenting the garden to Mrs. Cole, she pledged the efforts of all “to carry forward with renewed zeal the purpose for which this Society was organized—to further the knowledge and use of herbs.” She then

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called upon Mrs. Philip Batchelder to give the story leading up to this project.

Mrs. Batchelder’s Speech “This is a very thrilling occasion. We are here to do honor to the Founders of The Herb Society of America, and to express to them our gratitude for leading us so delightfully along the intriguing paths that lead to herbal knowledge of all kinds. It is fitting today that we turn our thoughts back to Wednesday, August 9th, 1933, when, according to the records, ‘a group of ladies met at the residence of Mrs. Edward B. Cole in Wenham, Massachusetts, and decided to form an association to be known as “The American Herb Society” or some similar name.’ Mrs. Albert C. Burrage, Jr. was made temporary chairman and Mrs. Laurance A. Brown temporary secretary. At the August 23rd meeting, the title ‘The Herb Society of America’ was finally chosen. Designs for a seal were discussed, and Mrs. George C. T. Bratenahl’s choice—showing sprigs of thyme composed in a circle, after a woodcut from Gerard’s Herbal—was selected. A phrase from Parkinson, ‘For Use and for Delight,’ was adopted as The Society’s motto. On September 18th, by-laws were considered; it was voted to apply for articles of copyright for the design of the seal; and official approval was given to the definition, ‘An herb is a plant which may be used for physic, flavor or fragrance.’ The next meeting was small in numbers but large in scope, for twelve possibilities for The Society’s future activity were suggested; among them an herbarium, an herb bibliography and the

H erb Garden at Wenham, Massachusetts

publication of a Year Book. On October 9th, Dr. Edgar Anderson gave a demonstration at the Arnold Arboretum of the approved methods of drying, mounting and storing botanical specimens. In November the group examined with him Professor Oakes Ames’s Herbarium at Harvard’s Botanical Museum in Cambridge. On November 27th, Mrs. Ferris Greenslet presented to The Society an antique ivory-handled, damascened silver gavel or mallet ‘to be passed on from president to president and to be held by them for their use and for their delight.’ In the accompanying letter, she said that she wished the Society ‘to have a little old silver as our joint possession, very much as, in Elizabethan times, the various

guilds owned pieces of plate ... (I am) hoping the mallet will bring to its various possessors, as the years pass, happy memories of our struggles together with and for herbs.’

But what did each one bring to the organization? A member of long standing who knew the Founders personally has written a reminiscing sort of evaluation, which we shall all treasure. I quote: ‘We think of: •

Mrs. Cole as a student, even a scientist, with a precise mind and an attention to detail. She has the teacher’s impulse to share and stimulate, and she is an inspiration to us all.

•

Mrs. Burrage, our first presiding officer, with her good taste and discrimination helped, through her wide acquaintance, to spread the news of The Society and to link it with other horticultural efforts.

•

Mrs. Brown, a reader and builder, had a most concise way of producing the right word. An ideal secretary, who could make the right phrase, put a motion, or word an inscription.

•

Mrs. Bratenahl, the first VicePresident, was the artist and builder type. She dreamed the picture she wanted to

The first Annual Meeting of The Herb Society of America was held in Horticultural Hall, Boston, on Tuesday, March 26th, 1935. So much for the written history, with its record of wise and efficient organization. But what of the Founders themselves? We can read between the lines of their enthusiasm and devotion, and we know that their firm purpose was ‘To further the knowledge of herbs, and to contribute to the records of horticulture and science the results of our experience and research.’

Continued on page 76

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History & Gardens

“It was a hard-working group, but we had lots of fun and many good times together, and we congratulate succeeding officers and members who have carried on and furthered the interests of The Society.” — Mrs. E.L. Mitchell

create, and knew how to get it done. Not only the Washington Cathedral garden but her own later one in Bethesda, Maryland, were examples of her daring—moving a full-grown yew tree or ancient box, building with old wood, even to lichened shingles on a roof; and she had magic in growing herbs. •

Mrs. Greenslet, a scholar and collector, was a power in building up the background. She searched literature and hunted old prints and knew the lore—a real authority on herbs.

•

Mrs. Mitchell, the practical treasurer, an authority on ways and means, had exquisite taste too, as shown in the Wenham Tea Shop today.

•

Mrs. Norton, a quiet and serious worker who made a notable contribution, especially on dye-plants, learned from her own personal experimenting, not content with simply borrowing from books.’

These were the Founders, whose united effort created the Herb Society of America. And so, we have built a little herb garden, in memory of our Founders, so that all who visit here may know the beauty and fragrance and peace that we have inherited. May we have a brief word from our first President, Mrs. Burrage?” [Mrs. Burrage] “It may be of interest to recall the simple story of the seal, designed by Mrs. Bratenahl. The Founders all had a preference for rosemary, and since rosemary stood for remembrance, Mrs. Bratenahl made a stylized and charming balanced design using seven branches1, representing the three Founders who lived near the ocean and four who lived inland. The motto ‘For Use and for Delight’ was taken from Parkinson, and expressed succinctly our feelings about herbs and about the Society.” Mrs. Mitchell, one of the three Founders present, expressed what an honor and privilege she had felt it to be, to be a part of those included in those formation days of the Herb Society. At that time, herbs presented a great challenge in both research and study, and each Founding member had her own special talent to contribute.“It was a hard-working group, but we had lots of fun and many good times together, and we congratulate succeeding officers and members who have carried on and furthered the interests of The Society.”

Mrs. Cole’s Reply “As the senior member of the Founders, I would like to express our deep appreciation to the New England Unit for the planting of this well-labeled garden comprising the important herbs ‘for use and for delight.’ The garden assures us of the continuance of that long line of herb gardens which have occupied this spot since early Colonial times, in fact as far back as 1685 when the hort-yard of Pastor Gerrish was growing on this very spot, extending to and including the site of the present Museum. It was a favorite stopping place for travelers, as we have evidence in the diaries and letters preserved from that time. Sewall’s diary mentions visiting this hort-yard of Mr. Gerrish, and we particularly enjoy quoting from the letter of a traveling Englishman who wrote that when he came to Wenham, an inland town where he paid a visit to Mr. Gerrish the minister, ‘Wenham is a delusive Paradise and I would choose it of all other towns in America in which to live.’ In accepting this garden from the New England Unit, I would like to pay tribute to the cooperation of many people. To Madeleine Harding, who has met the challenge of unpredictable weather and the dearth of promised herbs; she has mothered every herb, collecting and planting each one, with the occasional encouragement of Mrs. Abel and Mrs. Williams. To Mrs. MacLaren, President of the Hamilton and Wenham Garden Club, under whose leadership the garden will be cared for during the coming season. In closing these brief exercises, we hope that now or later you will visit this ancient Colonial house, where Mr. Gerrish lived in 1675 and around which he cultivated his hort-yard, which as far as I know was the first authentic herb garden in America.”

The garden was then presented to Mrs. Cole, President Emeritus of the Wenham Historical Association.

Mrs. Burrage made this statement in contradiction to the notes (August 27, 1933) of Mrs. Brown, Secretary (quoted earlier by Mrs. Batchelder), describing Mrs. Bratenahl’s design as thyme sprigs.

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The Herb Society Of America:

A Kaleidoscopic View of The First 50 Years Clockwise from top right to bottom: Mrs. George Bratenahl, Mrs. Edwin Mitchell, Mrs. Ferris Greenslet, Dr. Edgar Anderson, Mrs. Laurence Brown, Mrs. Albert Burrage, Jr., Mrs. Edward Cole, Mrs. Charles Norton. HSA Archives

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In 1933, six exemplary women who had been studying botany under the tutelage of Dr. Edgar Anderson of the Arnold Arboretum at Harvard came up with a most original idea. These women: Mrs. Laurence Brown, Mrs. Albert Burrage, Jr., Mrs. Edward Cole, Mrs. Ferris Greenslet, Mrs. Edward Mitchell, and Mrs. Charles Norton invited a seventh lady, Mrs. George Bratenahl, to join their group. From their efforts The Herb Society of America was established on August 23,1933, under the state laws of Massachusetts. A motto, “for use and for delight” was chosen. Additional members were invited, and the organization expanded, first into groups, followed by chapters and finally units. Scholarship was encouraged and publications launched. During World War II members helped the war effort by growing and processing herbs no longer available from overseas. Many laudable contributions were made, but without doubt the greatest achievement was the establishment of the National Herb Garden at the U.S. National Arboretum in 1980. Pricilla Sawyer Lord’s article captures the spirit of the admirable founding ladies while noting the highlights of The Society’s accomplishments during the first 50 years. — Phyllis Gibbs Sidorsky

Priscilla Sawyer Lord • 1983

anuary ushered in the New Year 1933, and the attending advent of seed catalogues. While the business world continued to recover from the Depression of 1929, the horticultural world was concerning itself with more productive varieties of large, vibrantlycolored flowers. W. Atlee Burpee Company announced three new sweet peas;“giant-sized, ruffled—vivid colors,” and a new tomato,‘Oxheart,’ the largest ever introduced, smooth, evenly colored, purple-scarlet—size 1 and ½ pounds each.” By 1933, new roses had accumulated to the number of 2,244, with 20 new ones in the U.S.A. The Montgomery Company of Hadley, Massachusetts, introduced ‘Talisman,’ one of the most important rose varieties for the cut flower market. Among the new varieties, climbers were “in,” and one in particular,‘Golden Climber,’ may still be purchased. Few were willing to consider the rose as an herb and fragrance was not an attribute. The cover of Park [Seed Co.] Flower Book—Seeds—1933 featured a black and white picture of Benary’s glorious ‘Eureka’ violet. Mr. Benary had been searching for a violet of superior beauty and when he found it, he exclaimed,“Eureka! Eureka!” It was described as “heavenly blue—a packet of 50 seeds, 5¢.”As for the rest of the vast field of herbs, there was parsley,“Early Curled Dwarf,”“Plain or Single,”“Fern-Leafed,” and “Hamburg or Turnip-Rooted.” Only George W. Park lauded culinary herbs, stating in his catalogue,“every kitchen-garden should contain a bed of herbs—to be used in flavoring and making more palatable the food prepared for the table; also to be used as teas as remedies for the various ills the family is subject to. Do not fail to add a few of these herbs to your order. Some of

the plants are well worth growing as flowering or ornamentals, and will last for years when once established.” That same January, six Boston matrons were privileged to study botany and horticulture under the guidance of Dr. Edgar Anderson at The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University. Dr. Anderson was keenly aware of the neglect of study in the field of herbs and offered the six matrons the facilities of the Harvard Laboratory, as well as expertise in horticulture, to pursue the study of herbs. One of the incorporators of The Herb Society of America, Dr. Anderson became its third chairman and was the first to be given the title of president. He also became the first president-atlarge when he moved to St. Louis, and always continued being a vital force within The Society. Time was propitious for the six Boston women: Mrs. Laurence Brown, Mrs. Albert Burrage, Jr., Mrs. Edward Cole, Mrs. Ferris Greenslet, Mrs. Edwin Mitchell, and Mrs. Charles Norton, to invite a seventh woman, Mrs. George Bratenahl (who wintered in Washington, D.C. but spent her summers in nearby Gloucester), to meet with them to discuss the founding of a new society whose intent and pursuit was to be the study and research of herbs, and to contribute the results of this research to others. Thus,The Herb Society of America (HSA) was founded on August 23, 1933, at the home of Mrs. Burrage and incorporated under the laws of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts on May 14, 1935. The seal, designed by Mrs. Bratenahl, utilizes seven sprigs of rosemary1 growing from a common root, which reflects the common interest of the seven founding members. The motto “For Use and For Delight,” found in Parkinson’s Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris by Mrs. Bratenahl,

This statement is in direct contradiction to Mrs. Lord’s own history (The History of The Herb Society of America, 1933-1983). On page 4 of this history, Mrs. Lord says,“Mrs. Bratenahl’s drawing was chosen for the seal for The Society on August 27, 1933.” The notes of Harriet A. Brown, secretary, read:“Mrs. Bratenahl’s design of thyme composed in a circle after a woodcut from Gerard’s Herbal was selected.” On the same page,“The March 4, 1935 issue of The Boston Transcript contained the statement, ‘The Herb Society of America has a fascinating seal bearing 7 sprigs of thyme.’”

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seemed most appropriate and well reflects the goals of The Society. In their research, the ladies learned that The Society and its members could and should study the medicinal herbs, but quickly they formed a policy,“No advice shall be given on the medicinal use of herbs,” which has been adhered to strictly.

Mrs. Norton, who was amazingly versatile with the use of herbs, possessed a stillroom that was a veritable laboratory for experimental colors and other imaginative projects. Mrs. Mitchell had great expertise in finance and was later to comment proudly,“The Herb Society of America was always solvent.” Mrs. Bratenahl was the acknowledged authority on all classical literature and history. She created The Bishop’s Herb Garden at the Washington Cathedral, Washington, D.C., and was the first woman of this century to establish both an herb garden and

Gold Medals from the 1936 Boston Spring Flower Show for HSA’s exhibit, “An Old World Bee Garden.” Photo by Robin Siktberg

From the very outset,The Society had the support of two prestigious organizations—the Arnold Arboretum and the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, and over the years these two institutions have lent their knowledge, encouragement and support. Similar situations came into existence wherever units were formed, be it in Philadelphia with the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, or in California with its alliance with the Huntington Botanical Garden and the American Horticultural Society.

From the beginning,The Society increased its membership by invitation offered selectively only to those who were already knowledgeable and versatile in the field of growing herbs and whose interests and achievements were directed toward research and continued learning. Through the ensuing years,The Society has maintained this selective membership, and mere growth in numbers was never an objective. As membership increased in numbers, it was decided to break it up into “groups,” then “chapters,” and finally “units.”The first group was the New England Group (1936), with the New York Group (1938) being second. Others, all across the country, followed quickly. Today, the number of units (including a notably active Canadian unit, Southern Ontario) totals twentythree. The Society also provided a Members-at-Large category to accommodate members who move away from a unit and those people who live where no unit exists. Banded together in regions now, this segment of the Society functions effectively and provides the nucleus for future units. The Society, by vote of the National Board, recognizes distinguished individuals by making them Honorary Members. Miss Eleanor Sinclair Rohde, of England, was the first so honored in October, 1933. From its inception,The Society’s exhibits (a means of furthering the knowledge of herbs) have been outstanding. In 1935,The Society was asked by the Massachusetts Horticultural Society to create an exhibit of herbs (the first in this country) for the annual Boston Spring Flower Show. The resulting exhibit,“A Seventeenth-Century Stillroom,” which was constructed by members living in Massachusetts, won the Gold Medal. The following year, another exhibit,“An Old World Bee Garden,” again won the coveted Continued on page 80

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History & Gardens

All seven founders were ardent gardeners who shared a keen enthusiasm for herbs, and their zeal and devotion to The Society continued unabated through the years. Mrs. Cole,“Granny Cole,” who had an abundance of savoir faire, was a sheer genius in accomplishing her goals and was second to no one in her insatiable interest for research. Mrs. Brown, who had launched the botany class, was known for her precision and accuracy as an excellent record keeper. Her skill with words was unique. Mrs. Greenslet, who was a classical scholar, grew extensive fields of herbs that amazed all who saw them. Of them she wrote,“Herbs, in a way, have the same relation to plants that folks songs have to music. They possess a naive, homely charm which smacks of the soil and their study ramifies into all kinds of interesting bypaths in the arts, customs and history of the different nations.” She possessed uncommon skill in the use of herbs for dyeing.

an herb shop (The Weathered Oak Herb Farm, Bethesda, Maryland) for the general public. Mrs. Burrage, who had suggested the name for The Society, served as its first chairman, and it was she who would chair practically every committee to be formed over the next two decades. It was her charisma that opened many a door for research and assistance. Her interest and infectious enthusiasm continue to this day.

Gold Medal. Exhibiting at flower shows continues today and the high standards have not been lowered. Exhibits such as those entered by the Philadelphia Unit at the annual Philadelphia Flower Show are not only educational but truly beautiful! Of all the excellent exhibits, perhaps the most outstanding was that of The Society’s exhibition of a herbarium at the Massachusetts Horticultural Society’s Horticultural Hall, in Boston, in the early 1940s. The exhibit was the result of the efforts of Mrs. Hollis Webster, chairman of the project, and Mrs. Frances R. Williams, chosen by Mrs. Webster to be curator. Under their guidance members collected, pressed, annotated and assembled a herbarium of herbaceous specimens that was indeed noteworthy. When exhibited it attracted, by the hundreds, a curious public who viewed it as a new approach to horticulture. In 1961, Mrs. Louis Davlin, an amateur botanist, was appointed to succeed Mrs. Williams as curator, and it was due to her efforts that arrangements were made in 1966, to give the collection of several thousand specimens to The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University. The herbarium sheets, each stamped “Presented to The Arnold Arboretum by The Herb Society of America” were accessioned, with Mrs. Davlin’s assistance, in 1967, and integrated into Arnold’s permanent collection. Arnold Arboretum, woefully lacking at that time in herbaceous material, welcomed the gift and considered The Society’s contribution a valuable addition to their collection, which had just been started in 1954. They also made it known that they welcomed, and still do today, further dried plant specimens of cultivated plants for addition to their collection. Their well-known herbarium attracts scientists and botanists from all around the world, and specimens are often sent out on loan to horticultural and botanical 2

institutions for scientific study. The entire collection is accessible to members of The Society who are interested in the specimens or have special problems. Introduction of a rare and ancient herb into the USA from its natural Mediterranean habitat may also be credited to The Society. This introduction, which occurred very soon after the founding of the Society, was that of Origanum dictamnus. Known in America until that time, only by references in herbals and by one herbarium specimen in the Gray Herbarium of Harvard University, this ancient herb with its Old World historical background of some 3000 years, landed on our shores through the inspiration, and perseverance of three remarkable members—Mrs. Burrage (Society founder and first editor of The Herbarist), who requested Mrs. Brown (fellowfounder) to author an article on Origanum dictamnus, “Righte Dittany,” for the first issue of The Herbarist.² The article, in turn, inspired Mrs. Ellery Sedgwick (a friend and fellow director of the Garden Club of America) to pursue and eventually bring a living specimen from Crete to the propagating tables of The Herb Society of America. To this day members pursue the importation of new herbs from areas all over the world. Although The Society has fulfilled many needs, many times, its role during the World War II years was one of the greatest. In 1939, Mrs. Cole (one of The Society founders) realized that America, with its yearly importation of over 10,000,000 pounds of herbs, was heading for trouble as imported herbs, because of the war, were becoming restricted. The situation was becoming one of scarcity—scarcity not only in the sense of imported culinary, and more importantly, medicinal herbs, but scarcity also

The article appears on page 16 of this publication

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of knowledge of how to meet the situation by growing herbs domestically. There was no available information on commercial growing, harvesting or marketing, nor was there any seed or stock available for prospective growers. This challenge was met by The Society who, with Mrs. Cole as director, launched a Three-Year-Project (1941-1943) to help growers meet the shortage of herbs. Each and every member, working under the direction of the Commercial Research Committee, was asked to participate. Mrs. Cole’s own daughter was commandeered to grow one whole acre of mint and to harvest, dry and record it. Research was confined to a definite program of growing, mostly in New England by the New England Unit. Crops were grown not only for experimental purposes, but some, like Atropa belladonna, were grown for seed. Carefully kept records of the experiments of all herbs grown, but especially of the two most essential ones, sage (Salvia officinalis) and digitalis (Digitalis purpurea), were kept, compiled into bulletins and made available as publications to growers and all those interested. Reports on the experiments and results were also published in The Herbarist. Another result of the Three-YearProject was the standardizing of the horticultural names of herbs. Besides being the driving-force of the ThreeYear-Project, Mrs. Cole served as an information center. Literally thousands of letters, including ones from seed companies such as Burpee, with varied inquiries, were answered from her desk, and she, more than anyone else, encouraged and facilitated the concept of an herb cottage-industry. The value of the work performed at this time by The Society was recognized by many, among them Dr. Edgar Anderson [of the] Missouri Botanical Garden, who wrote to Mrs. Cole,“The way in which the whole Society has become infused with

plain horse sense is a tribute to your tact and persistence. I continue to be amazed by the tremendous fund of good hard facts which the Society has brought together.” In its first 50 years,The Society has contributed significantly in the field of publications. A newsletter, designed to maintain cohesion between all of the members, was launched in 1935. Today a bimonthly newsletter, designed to “inspire, serve, inform, unite” serves the same purpose and is sent to every member.

In 1937,The Society, along with others, contributed funds to have a Mexican medical herbal, The Aztec Manual, better known as The Badianus Herbal, translated into English. Compiled by two Aztecs in 1552, this book’s great interest is that it is the earliest such work, thus far, to have been produced in the New World, and its beautifully executed illustrations do not reflect European influence. This facsimile edition, which was published in 1940, was translated by Dr. Emily Emmart, a member at large. Later, Dr. Emily Emmart Trueblood became one of the outstanding members of the Potomac Unit, and

In 1933, Herbs—How To Grow Them, a compilation of articles that Helen Noyes Webster, The Society’s first member, had been contributing to Horticulture magazine, a monthly publication of the Massachusetts Horticulture Society, was published as a book by the Massachusetts Horticulture Society. It became the first book on the subject of herbs to be published in the United States in this century. Since then, Society members have continuously contributed their expertise to the literature on the

The first issue of The Herbarist, 1935.

subject of herbs and today their published works are found throughout the world. In 1965, in keeping with its policy of the support of education,The Society established a Scholarship Fund to aid students in the study of herbs. To date, eight scholarships have been awarded to recipients whose research has added, and is adding, immeasurably to the knowledge and literature about herbs. It had always been a wish and hope of The Society founders that its

members would start small home gardens that they would be willing to open to visitors, and thus teach by example. Today innumerable Society members all across the USA and Canada share their gardens with others. Since 1933, Society members’ gardens have piqued the interest of the public, and informed and delighted many a visitor. It was also a wish and hope of the founders that members would create public herb gardens, and this wish became one of the Society’s first projects. In 1934, soon after the founding of The Society, Mrs. Burrage (always a leader), with tussie-mussie in hand, convinced the Boston Park Department of this need and Boston’s first public herb garden was created in Franklin Park. Through the years, countless public herb gardens have been created and/or are being maintained by Society members. One of the more recent, and certainly the most important and spectacular garden so created, is the National Herb Garden in the U. S. National Arboretum, Washington, D.C. This garden, a gossamer dream in 1966 of Mrs. Percy Cashmore, an outstanding member, and at that time president of The Herb Society of America, came into being in 1980 through the unstinting and unrelenting efforts of many members and outsiders. The detailed story of this outstanding garden, written by Caroline Seelye Cadwalader, Garden Project Chairman, can be found in The Herbarist, No. 46, 1980, on pages 8 through 15. The National Herb Garden is, thus far, the greatest contribution by the Society to the advancement of horticultural knowledge. However, it certainly will not be its last garden, or other project, of this magnitude. The future will continue to offer challenges in the realm of herbs and, undoubtedly,The Society and its members will continue to meet these challenges.

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The Herbarist, an annual publication of The Society, was also launched in 1935. Spurred on by Dr. Anderson, the founding members, whose research had been constant, serious and rewarding, decided to appear in print in a small journal. Although small in size (the first issues averaged 40-50 pages) the publication’s informative and interesting articles made a surprising impact on the general public, and The Herbarist seemed to be fulfilling a real need. From the beginning, it set a high standard for articles valued for their thorough research, and this standard continues today. Back issues are becoming collectors’ items.

it was her foresight that started the Endowment Fund for the Society.

Betty Rea Remembers:

Recollections on the Founding of the National Herb Garden Betty Rea’s reminiscences about the development of The National Herb Garden, The Herb Society of America’s gift to the people of the United States, is well told in this article by Phyllis Sidorsky. The trail of tussie-mussies from one government building to another, culminating in the presentation of one to the director of the Marine Band at the dedication, tells the story of the dedication and passion of those people determined to build the garden. In an effort to foster the pride that The Society has felt for this garden over the past twenty plus years, its story should be told and retold. — Caroline Amidon

Top: Joan Mondale, wife of Vice-President Walter Mondale, plants the last boxwood, assisted by National Arboretum Director Johni Creech NHG Curator Holly 82 Shimizu and The Herbarist Issue(kneeling). 74 2008 U.S. Secretary of Agriculture Bob Bergland stand by. Below: The new garden.

Phyllis Sidorsky • 1999

Below: The dedication reception in Director John Creech’s office. Back ook! Over there! That row (L-R): Frances Price, Betty Rollins, NHG Curator Holly Shimizu, Joanna has to be wild indigo (Baptisia tinctoria to be Reed, Joan Mondale, wife of VicePresident Walter Mondale, Amy Core, Dr. botanically correct). And here— John Creech, Director of the National I’m sure this is selfheal (Prunella Arboretum, The Hon. Jamie Whitten of vulgaris), because I grow it in Mississippi, Eleanor Gambee, unknown, my own herb garden at home.” Secretary of Agriculture Bob Bergland.

“L

Cries of delight at recognizing old friends and of pleasure in discovering unfamiliar herbs are common responses of visitors as they walk through the pathways of the National Herb Garden at the U.S. National Arboretum in Washington, D.C.

To obtain a behind-the-scenes view of the birth pangs of such a major endeavor, Potomac Unit members Jo Sellers and I spent a morning interviewing a prime mover— Betty (Mrs. Edward) Rea—who was intimately involved in the creation of this major horticultural achievement. At the outset of the interview, Betty gave credit to the many individuals involved in bringing the idea of creating a national herb garden to fruition. She pointed out that the entire Herb Society was closely involved

in each step, with every unit making a significant contribution. Initially, Herb Society of America members Mrs. Harry Brokaw Smith, along with Dr. Emily Trueblood, Edna Cashmore and Betty Rea met in 1965 with Dr. Henry Skinner, Director of the U.S. National Arboretum, to propose the creation of a national herb garden. They learned that in order to build or construct anything on federal land they must first have the funding in hand. Despite this caveat, the suggestion—when presented to The Society—met with enthusiasm. The idea was approved by the national board in Cleveland in 1966, and the project was on its way! The actual plans for the garden took shape under

All photos from HSA Archives

Mrs. Elsetta Gilchrist Barnes, ASLA, a member of the Western Reserve Unit (who had designed the herb garden at the Garden Center of Greater Cleveland, now the Cleveland Botanical Garden) presented a preliminary landscape design. Caroline Cadwalader (of the New England Unit), chair of the National Herb Garden Committee, recommended—with board approval—the selection of Sasaki Associates, an organization with a well-established reputation for reliability and originality. Tom Worth of Sasaki, who now appears on the television program This Old House, was chosen as the landscape architect. The next step was to implement the ideas of Mrs. Barnes’ design. Nancy Howard, Audrey O’Connor, Dottie Hood, Joanna Reed, Betty Rea and Caroline Cadwalader, as chair of the National Herb Garden Committee, met to discuss the plans with Tom Worth. Skip Marsh, of the Arboretum, offered his professional view on the discussion at hand. Initially, they decided on ten specialty herb gardens. At a later date the historic rose garden and knot garden were also approved. A competition was held within The Herb Society to devise Continued on page 84

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As guests stroll through the various gardens, examining the extensive plant material while enjoying the aromatic scents, they may well wonder how this garden—a gift to the American public—came to be. A remarkable tale it is, too, full of rewards and disappointments, joys and frustrations, not to mention surprises. But a dull story? Never! It is the account of many individuals whose combined efforts and talents created this national treasure.

Front row (L-R): Mrs. Bob Bergland, wife of Secy. Bergland, Dorothy Jones, Wanda Ritchie, Edna Cashmore, Anne Burrage, Betty Rea, Genevieve Jyurovat, Garden Chair Caroline Cadwalader. Except where mentioned, all are past

the aegis of Edna Cashmore of the Connecticut Unit, then director and president of The Society. Although preliminary planning and arrangements with the Arboretum were initiated in 1965, it was not until the 1974-76 presidency of Genevieve Jyurovat of Ohio that legal complications were sorted out and an agreement was signed by Dr. John Creech, Director of the Arboretum.

the design for the knot garden. The formidable job of selecting the most appropriate plants suited to each garden now had to be faced. Fortunately, this challenging task occurred at the beginning of the computer age, which made it possible to compile a list describing individual plants, their taxonomy, pertinent characteristics, and lineage. Madalene Hill, Joanna Reed, Nancy Howard and others worked for nearly a year to complete this project. It was an onerous undertaking, carried out through the facilities of the National Agricultural Library in Beltsville, Maryland, whose cooperation and support was greatly appreciated.

don’ts of writing a proposal. The resultant brochure, along with the draft proposal, was sent out to all units. This was a very important step, for the material included a pledge card as well as a description of the proposed garden. One of the first steps was to acquire bricks for the garden walks. Upon contacting the Brick Trade Association, Betty was generously supplied with a sizable box of designed-to-scale miniature bricks. These were sold at flower shows and to members (at five dollars a brick) to help raise money for the walks. Betty took to the road in 1977 with the intention of visiting every unit. Since it was important to let every member examine the extensive plans for the projected garden, she carried with her a huge tube provided by a member’s helpful architect husband. She also carried a true scale model of the garden, artfully created by Betty Neideringhaus and Arlene Miller of the Western Pennsylvania Unit, which fit neatly under the aircraft seat on her many flights. These two items became Betty’s constant

The vigor that was displayed in creating the foundation of a national herb garden now needed to be channeled in another and even more demanding direction. If selecting plants and designing a layout was a challenge, it paled in comparison with the task of financing such an enterprise. Without independent and continued funding, the idea was doomed to failure. The first Top: HSA Founding Member Anne Burrage (left) greets Joan Mondale, requirement was wife of Vice-President Walter Mondale. Bottom: Eleanor Gambee, HSA to identify possible President 1978-1980 (left) and Anne Burrage. funding sources. The companions on her journeys. idea of a paid “fundraiser” was rejected because Dr. Creech, Director of the National Arboretum, of the prohibitive upfront fees demanded by such organizations. The personal approach, using members’ provided Betty with many suggestions including the idea that she should write to Walter McIlhenny (of own resources and abilities, was the route chosen. At McIlhenny Tabasco Sauce Company) to solicit funds. this stage, The Society had already raised $150,000. However, a total of $400,000 was needed to complete A recent article in Town and Country describing Mr. McIlhenny’s many interests, especially those the project. concerned with his arboretum, made him a likely It fell to Betty, as president of HSA, to summon her prospect. Betty followed through with this idea while resources and start the ball rolling. In 1977, Betty on a trip soliciting support for the herb garden in the and her husband Ed researched various foundation southern U.S.A., and paid a visit to Mr. McIlhenny in libraries to obtain information about potential Louisiana. They discussed the feasibility of his funding financial contributors. They also learned the dos and

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the curator’s office as well as a trial and propagation area. The McIlhenny Tabasco Company, when consulted, not only concurred, but also donated informative brochures on peppers for distribution by the Arboretum as well as actual pepper plants for the culinary garden. The McIlhenny family has added generously over the years to Walter McIlhenny’s original gift. In Arkansas, Betty conferred with Mary and Booker Worthen (treasurers of the garden committee) and Roland and Ruth Remmel, who were responsible for fund raising, also speaking on radio and TV in Little Rock. Arrangements were made at this time for the publication of an official brochure.

On one occasion during Betty’s farranging fund raising junkets, she found herself standing alongside

At both the Connecticut and Canadian meetings, Betty found herself met by limos and whisked off to private homes and dinner parties. She always brought along the plans and the model to be displayed on each occasion. While visiting the New England Unit, Betty met Anne Burrage, the last living member of the founders of The Herb Society, who proved to be a young and active 80-year-old. This, too, was a highlight for Betty. Betty Rea attended her first board meeting at the New York City Colony Club, where photographs of elegant grand dames graced the walls. Silk lampshades were festooned with delicate fringe, and those in attendance sat on gold decorated chairs. Antique oriental rugs covered the polished floors. She remembers that the report was given by a lady sporting a lorgnette and that all of those present were properly turned out in hats and gloves. Enroute to a New Jersey Unit meeting on March 4, 1977, Betty’s plane was delayed because of a severe snowstorm. But, with timely de-icing and an efficient crew, Betty arrived in time to receive a circlet of carnations and streamers to wear. The unit was celebrating with a

medieval banquet serving cuisine appropriate to the occasion. Even the announcements were heralded with a blast of a trumpet. Betty conceded that visiting each unit provided her with a unique and enjoyable experience. As Betty pursued her goal of acquiring funds for the national herb garden, she had occasion to meet Secretary of Agriculture Bob Bergland at an event at the Arboretum. As the result of this meeting, she was invited to come by and visit him at his office. Dr. Creech made the arrangements and accompanied Betty to the meeting. Mr. Thurmond Dade, head of maintenance and construction at the Arboretum, gave Betty a rabbit’s foot for good luck–which, as it turned out, she immediately put to good use. When the official car, their intended means of transportation, failed to arrive, Mr. Dade came to the rescue, driving Betty and Dr. Creech to their meeting with Secretary Bergland in an Arboretum truck. In Mr. Bergland’s office, Betty discovered that there was insufficient space to lay out the design on the desk. Unfazed by this complication, she proceeded to spread out the plan on the floor, anchoring it with a large silver peanut, a gift to the Secretary from President Carter. During this conference, Secretary Bergland suggested that Betty meet with Representative Jamie Whitten of Mississippi, Chairman of the House Appropriations Subcommittee. Congressman Whitten then arranged for Betty to testify before the entire subcommittee. On March 21, 1978, Betty, accompanied by her husband and a group including Mr. Robert Fisher (the Mount Vernon horticulturist and Honorary President of The Herb Society of America), and by Continued on page 86

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History & Gardens

Fundraising projects undertaken by The Society itself were ingenious and varied. A scarf was designed and sold; a needlepoint fashioned by Ollie Jones was auctioned off. Lois Ehlenfield and Eleanor Donley created a chive-patterned tote bag manufactured by a Cleveland company from remnants of Arab tent material. Jean Meyer came up with herbal-design stationery. Monetary gifts to honor esteemed members of The Society added to the coffers. The knot garden was given by Mr. And Mrs. Maurice McAshan in honor of Madalene Hill. Betty Rea, the tireless fundraiser, was honored by the Potomac Unit, who provided the funds in her name to create the fragrance garden. Betty and Kay Buttenheim of the New York Unit visited the Caswell-Massey office in NewYork, which subsequently made a contribution. The daughter of member at large Pat Carter wrote an article on the herb garden for House and Garden.

the Lt. Governor of Canada in a receiving line in Toronto on the occasion of the 1977 annual meeting. Here, arrivals curtseyed not only to the official dignitaries, but also to Betty! Quite a heady experience! The visit to the New York Unit included an outing to the Brooklyn Botanic Garden, always a delightful experience at any season. While browsing through their fine gift shop, Betty noticed another shopper, renowned botanical artist Anne Ophelia Dowden. Pleasantries were exchanged, and Betty left as a proud possessor of an autographed book beautifully illustrated by Ms. Dowden.

Thelma Barnes (Vice President of HSA), were ushered into the committee hearing room. Betty, seated in front of the committee, was invited by Congressman Whitten to present her case. Betty then described The Herb Society, its structure and purpose. She noted that The Society wanted to establish a national herb garden at the Arboretum in order to demonstrate to the general public the significance of herbs throughout history in the fields of pharmacology and botany, as well as their culinary and commercial aspects. Betty noted that the Arboretum had willingly approved a plan for a two-acre garden as designed by Sasaki Associates, the proposed garden to require a year to complete. At this point, 50% of the estimated $400,000 cost had already been raised by The Society. She informed them that in 1976 The Herb Society presented the sum of $17,760 to the Department of Agriculture to initiate the project. The Society was requesting that Congress appropriate the $200,000 needed for its completion. Betty pointed out that such a national garden would benefit not only the public at large, but also students ranging from those in elementary schools to those pursuing advanced degrees. Garden walkways would be accessible to the physically challenged. The plan, which had already been approved by the National Capitol Planning Commission, would employ minority contractors in its construction. This well-thought-out, ably presented appeal met with warm acceptance. In response to Betty’s request, Congressman Whitten promised that he and the committee would give the proposal serious consideration. A tussie-mussie had already been presented to Congressman Whitten. Each member of the subcommittee also received this tribute at a later date. The term “tussie-mussie,” however, was a new one for the committee stenographer, who, before adjourning, discreetly leaned over to ask Betty the correct spelling. Betty assured all the committee members she would get them busy growing, using, and savoring herbs. The session ended with a heartwarming exchange of thanks and fulsome compliments. It was voted as a special honor, with the committee’s unanimous consent, to have the full copy of her petition appear in the Congressional Record. The result of Betty’s presentation was a check from Congress for $200,000 presented to Agriculture Secretary Bob Bergland in December 1978. Betty made sure that he received a tussie-mussie to celebrate the event. However, construction did not begin until the following November. The Garden Committee of The Herb Society of America continued to meet with the architect and representatives from the Department of Agriculture in order to make many additional The Herbarist i Issue 74 2008

important decisions. Actual work commenced on December 15, 1978, a cold rainy day. On hand was the ever-faithful, indefatigable Betty Rea armed with a tussie-mussie, which she pinned on the tractor. The next order of business was to hire a full-time curator for the herb garden, since its maintenance necessitated the expertise of a well-qualified horticulturist. Dr. Creech received many letters in response to the advertisement in the National Register. Holly Shimizu, the first curator, ably filled the requirements during her ten-year tenure. As plans for the dedication were being drawn up, it became apparent that no money was available for the ceremony, Sponsors were approached and the necessary contributions were received in time to pay for the tent, chairs and food. Coincidentally, Mrs. George Garret of Washington, D.C., informed Betty about the possibility of acquiring original columns from the United States Capitol building. These had been discarded many years previously when the east front of the building was extended. As a result of Betty Rea’s efforts to secure the columns for the Arboretum, she received—on June 14, 1990—a plaque from the U.S. National Arboretum honoring her leadership. On June 19, 1990, Congressman Whitten lauded Betty Rea’s success in leading the campaign to acquire the columns, and with warm expressions of appreciation, had his tribute read into the Congressional Record. Finally, the momentous day for the dedication ceremony of the National Herb Garden at the U.S. National Arboretum arrived. A press luncheon was held with the New York Times garden editor, Joan Lee Faust, and representatives from many other newspapers. Margaret Reed of the Western Pennsylvania Unit presented a lively lecture on dye plants. The presence of beguiling sheep from the Agricultural Research Center in Beltsville, Maryland, added to the festivities. It was a splendid day! A champagne reception was held in Dr. Creech’s office celebrating the efforts of past Herb Society presidents–Frances Price, Betty Rollins, Joanna Reed, Dorothy Jones, Amy Core, Wanda Ritchie, Edna Cashmore, Eleanor Gambee, Betty Rea, Genevieve Jyurovat. Other honored guests included The Honorable Jamie Whitten of Mississippi, Joan Mondale (wife of the vice president), Secretary of Agriculture, The Honorable Bob Bergland, Anne Burrage (a founder of The Herb Society of America), and Caroline Cadwalader, chair of the National Herb Garden Committee. Mrs. Mondale was invited to plant the final boxwood in the knot garden.

The Rosemary

Here it must be noted that a very neat and somewhat overly zealous Society member, on coming across the remaining boxwood plant on the sidewalk, quickly tucked it in place in the knot garden. When informed of the planned ceremony, she hastily restored the boxwood to its original location. Just one more exciting incident before the garden’s triumphal ceremony. And so, on a gorgeous evening—June 13, 1980—with the Marine Band providing music, the long-anticipated dedication of The Herb Garden in the National Arboretum was celebrated with due pomp and much joy shared by all. You would not be at all surprised to learn that Betty Rea presented the director of the Marine Band with a tussie-mussie— now would you!

By Margaret DeLand

My sweet maid Rosemary— (Her gown it is so plain, E’en Vanity, Dressed thus, could not be vain!) Doth preach to me, When this my life doth seem All small and mean, And full of briars to be, For in the rain or sun, Cloaked all in modest gray, This garden nun Doth stand as though to pray. Content, she never heeds If flaunting Poppy scorns, Nor marks that weeds Do tear her gown with thorns; She tells her beads, And lives her life with joy, Her one employ To fill some small, sweet needs. From The Old Garden and Other Verses, 1888 Printed in The Herbarist, 1956

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History & Gardens

Below: Presenting HSA’s check for $200,000 for the National Herb Garden to Mr. Bob Bergland, Secretary of Agriculture, in his office. (L-R) Dr. John Creech, Betty Rea, Bob Bergland, Eleanor Gambee, Mr. Cutler, Under Secretary of Agriculture

This article, written in 1939, is important because it clearly illustrates the high level of academic curiosity of HSA members then and now, and the information contained in it is as applicable today as when it was written. Martha Genung Stearns’ article stands out because of the masterful way in which she brings the reader into understanding the full scope of the color blue in our lives. She carefully guides the reader from the visualization of the color blue in nature, to focusing on the use of blue colors in the arts, to grasping the symbolism of the color blue in religion, to the production of indigo blue dye. Then, she quickly takes the reader from growing Indigofera sumatrana in India to the growing, production and use of indigo dye in America. — Joyce Brobst

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Martha Genung Stearns • 1939

erhaps you will remember the little villages in Italy perched up on impossible rocks or clinging to a mountainside, which have been sun-baked for so many centuries that they have mellowed to terra-cotta and merged with the sun-scorched rock. If you have climbed up to one of these primitive little places, you have come through a crumbling arched gateway into the village square, and there, up in the campanile of the church, you see a bit of intense blue, repeating the higher blue of the sky. It is the face of the clock, an ancient timekeeper, sometimes with but eight numerals, so that in the twenty-four hours, its one hand must make the circuit three times. It marks only the hours, perhaps because minutes don’t matter very much when you live above the world. The face is painted blue, the color of eternity, of infinity, to remind one who looks at it that time will one day cease to be. It seems as if the most loved and familiar things in nature are one sort of blue or another; the distant blue of mountains and cloud shadows and the sea, and the same hue comes into our immediate foreground in many a bird and tiny flower, even to the little blue eggs of robin and hedge-sparrow. In all the handicrafts, the work of a man’s hands is intimately bound up with nature, as he takes materials which have grown out of the earth and brings them by simple processes to a useful and beautiful end. All through the history of the arts and crafts, we find indigo as a staple pigment and dye from the earliest days down to the present time; there is no other natural blue so reliable or running so true.

Blue, as we think of it in the arts, is almost synonymous with indigo. In the Middle Ages, there were three great natural sources of blue. One was mineral, a copper ore called Azurite, or lapis lazuli, which had to be reduced to powder and mixed with some vehicle which would carry the particles; and there were two plant sources: woad, always considered as secondary, and true indigo, which stood severe tests and was the colorist’s standby. There was not much difference, chemically, between woad blue and indigo blue, and the woad, which grew 1

Now Indigofera tinctoria

“The other great blue that the Middle Ages inherited from antiquity was indigo, a colouring-matter known to the ancient Egyptians and imported by them, and later by the Greeks and Romans, from India (whence its name). It was extracted from certain plants native to India known to modern botany as Indigoferae, the bearers of indigo. It was used primarily as a dye, but as a by-product of dyeing with it a blue pigment was formed, the colour indicus or indicum, which became in Italian endeco or endego, and in English ‘indigo.’ The importation of indigo from the Orient continued through the Middle Ages, and the best qualities in the European market were known as Bagdad indigo or Gulf indigo.” Indigo by itself is a dark purplish color and must be thinned and lightened to get a true, clear blue. Most of the indigo in the market still comes from its ancient home, India. The plant Indigofera sumatrana1 is grown from seed sown about the end of April; by the middle of June it is 3 to 5 feet high, and the first crop is cut then, another being ready by August in that climate. It is cut early in the morning, taken to the factory and steeped in water from 9 to 14 hours, when the liquid is run off into another vat, where it is violently beaten; the object of this is to bring as much air into it as possible, and in the hand-process this whipping was done with bamboo sticks. The precipitated indigo is allowed to settle like a sediment or mud to the bottom, and the water run off. After being strained and sterilized by boiling, it is dried and cut into blocks. The color comes from the leaves alone, the stems yielding practically none. In its dried cake form it is easily handled and exported, and thus it travelled over the world, coming to America in the days of the earliest settlements. India brought dyeing to a fine art, and was the first Eastern country to export dyes into Europe. Italy was soon learning her secrets and was noted during the Ages of the Faith, when the Church was the great patron of the arts, for her magnificent fabrics, Continued on page 84 89

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In Christian symbolism, which is really a picture language of astonishing range and richness, every color and almost every natural object has its meaning. Blue is not only the color of Our Lady’s garment in the works of the old painters; it is the soul’s color, the color of faith. The flower of Nigella, or love-in-a-mist, was a symbol of the soul, a blue blossom enclosed in a feathery green sheath, the veil of the mortal body. In the world’s universal language green is the earth color and blue the symbol of heaven.

readily in northern countries, was substituted for the Oriental indigo for domestic purposes. This was partly due to the fact that the ashes of woad, when the stems and waste were burned, were the best source of potash and lye, and as such, woad has been used down to the present day as an adjunct to dyeing with indigo in potash solution, so that the terms are sometimes inter-changed and consequently puzzling. But woad was a disagreeable plant, exhausting the soil so that new tracts must constantly be given up to it, and also fermenting in the dyeing process and becoming extremely odorous. Daniel Thompson says, in Materials of Medieval Painting:

especially Florence, which was the city of master-dyers. By the slow progress of time and commerce, the art of textile weaving and dyeing moved northward by way of Lyons and Arras, Bruges and Spitalfields, and what would these fabrics have been without their glorious blues? Indigo was preeminently the dyer’s color; in illuminated books and on canvas and especially for enamels, ultramarine was more desirable, a powder of ground lapis lazuli from Persia which went through long processes to reach the painter’s brush in workable form. An Italian book on dyeing, printed in Venice in 1548, spoke of “endego” as a rare dye from the Americas, and the renowned traveller Marco Polo speaks of it. When America entered the company of nations, indigo was well known, and the simple but laborious handprocesses went on for more than two centuries. What we call by the covering term of “Puritan gray” is said to have been a wool fabric woven by the formula of one part good white sheep’s wool, one part black sheep’s wool, and one part of “taglocks” and other discolored bits spun and dyed blue in the indigo pot, all three woven into a dull mixture of practical worth but little beauty. A blue dye-pot was said to see as much service as a teapot; and these old earthenware dye-pots with a blue sediment in the bottom only needed more water to be boiled up and used for many household needs, sometimes sweetened by flag-root to counteract the strong odor. In an austere society that frowned upon bright colors and display, the humble blue was allowed, and this accounts for the prevalence of the honest, hold-fast color in early needlework, woven bed-covers and garments. The indigo peddler appeared once or twice a year, bringing the dye in lumps, and the best quality cracked apart and showed a glint of gold. It was tied up in a cloth and pulverized by pounding, and a little went a long way. The depth of color depended on how long the fabric remained in the pot, or the number of dippings.

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Eliza Pinckney, the energetic mistress of Belmont, near Charleston, South Carolina, demonstrated in 1744 that she could grow indigo successfully, and a minute description of her method is given in her life by Harriott Horry Ravenal. She obtained seed from the East Indies and devoted a whole crop to raising her own seed, much of which she gave away; she writes:“Out of a small patch of indigo...besides saving a quantity of seed, made us 17 pounds of very good indigo,” and in 1753 the neighboring planters formed themselves into the “Winyah Indigo Society,” which flourished for years and exported enormous quantities to England, receiving a bounty from the Crown. A less successful experiment was conducted at the Pine Mountain settlement school in Kentucky in 1925, with seed from France. The old hand-process was carefully adhered to, a pound of leaves to a gallon of water; but the yield in dry weight of cake indigo from 12 pounds of leaves was just short of one ounce. Considering that Madras indigo can be bought for $2 per pound, it would not seem practical to spend the time, labor and expense necessary to extract indigo, but the fact has been established that it is entirely possible to get excellent indigo from American-grown plants and American seed. Dyeing methods were revolutionized by the discovery in 1834 of the aniline process by a German chemist who noticed that a bright blue color resulted from the action of a bleaching powder on a distillation of coaltar. Artificial indigo was worked out in 1878, and now the aniline process has displaced the old vegetable dyes, giving a vast range of shades, but with the passing of the old-time method, we have lost another contact with nature and her own soft and subtle shades which had so much charm.

Pleasure & Use

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During World War II, The Herb Society of America furnished much education on how and where to grow plants (such as milkweed) for replacement of crops no longer available to us. These crops were needed for medicine, food and commercial uses.We were also an important source of seeds. So many farmers had not been growing crops (such as digitalis, savory and sage) that few seeds were available, except from the Department of Agriculture. Even friends in England requested seeds, as they had become dependent on Europe for food during the War. This article on milkweed highlights the need for information on plants with great potential as substitutes for materials in short supply—sometimes surpassing the quality of the original material. It is a fascinating and well-written account of a plant most know only as a roadside weed. — Lucille Dressler Author unknown • 1945

n The Herbarist No. 9, 1943, one of our Field Notes mentioned the possibilities of milkweed floss as a substitute for kapok in life preservers, aviators’ suits and other military uses. It was in March 1943 that Dr. Boris Berkman1 addressed the Chemurgic Conference in Chicago and gave a striking report on the performances of milkweed. For some years he had been studying this familiar weed which has been such a lifelong pest to farmers, but it was not until the fall of Java cut off America’s supply of kapok that the United States Navy observed his tests and experiments, made some tests of their own with milkweed floss and immediately became interested. Tests in various government and university laboratories have gone on, and are bringing out some hitherto-unguessed facts about milkweed. The State of Michigan was the scene of the first activities on a large scale, centering in Petoskey. Hundreds of Michigan farmers harvested acres of milkweed; in Emmet County alone ten million pounds of pods were gathered. Many plants were found on waste and abandoned land; in fact 72 percent of the wild milkweed grew on land so poor that no other crop would grow there. But when one is reckoning in millions of pounds, it is necessary to establish some future supply by planting a commercial crop. Many Midwestern farmers, therefore, are planting the weed for a substantial profit, and experiments in soil, in germination of seed, and in selective breeding are improving the quality and quantity of the floss, as the plant responds to encouragement. A feature of this astonishing reversal of all that we have thought about milkweed in the past was the call that went out to American children to help gather the green pods from every wild plant, as one of their contributions to the war effort. They responded all Left: Milkweed foliage Footnote to original article:“We are indebted to Dr. Berkman, now President of the Milkweed Products Development Corporation, for permission to use the material contained in his report.”

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over the United States, for milkweed pods are found in almost every state in the Union. Superintendents of schools furnished piles of onion sacks; school children of all sizes, boy scouts and girl scouts and the Junior Red Cross, with encouragement from parents and from the American Legion, scoured the pastures and roadsides for the pods, to get them fully grown but still in the green state before opening so that not one seed could escape. There was hardly an American schoolhouse where one did not see the long rows of onion-bags hung on fences or out of windows while the pods were drying. Reports were made to the children on the nation-wide progress being made; they knew that ten pounds of green weight will yield one pound of floss, and that the floss from two bagsful will make one lifejacket, and that lives would depend on their work. The Government, in enlisting this children’s army, offered payment; and in many schools the money has been used for some school project benefiting all the children, such as playground equipment or a clubroom.

The other fiber is in reality an air tube, in the feathery floss that floats the seed when ripe. This air tube indicates its physical properties and uses, because any fiber that encloses air will be buoyant, will have a high insulation value, and will be a good sound-proofing material. These three qualities are not only due to

The most strenuous tests were applied to this seemingly fragile fiber by the Navy’s Laboratories. A sample of it had 30 times its own weight suspended from it and was floated in water for 41 days. A second sample, after floating for 44 days with 33 times its own weight attached, was dried out thoroughly and then retested, coming through another 39 days. The results of official tests called for a million or so pounds for use at once, and since that time uses for it have multiplied. Its conductivity value is better than that of kapok, until now considered the best insulating material on the market. Another advantage over kapok is that its resiliency is greater, and it does not have to be baled at high pressure as is done with kapok, which must be transported thousands of miles. Its soundproofing properties have also been established by tests. If we recapitulate the uses of milkweed floss, we have the following impressive list: Life preservers; life jackets, aviators’ suits combining insulation value for high atmosphere with buoyancy in case the aviators fall into water, linings for coats and vests for soldiers, sailors and marines, combining the above properties; sleeping bags, mattresses, pillows, comforters, surgical dressings, baseballs, insulating material for refrigerators, buildings, gas tanks, insulating material for soldiers’ helmets, protecting the head from heat in Africa and cold in Alaska; wrist warmers, inlays for shoes which are both waterproof and the best insulators. Milkweed floss in the helmets of aviators for sound-proofing purposes protects their hearing in combat planes from constant noise of the engine which results in a thickening of the eardrum and impaired hearing. 93

Owing to its air tube structure, milkweed floss used for plugs in the ears of artillery troops protects the eardrum from impact of air much better than solid cotton plugs could ever do. Grease-proof paper and high quality filter paper are other possibilities to be mentioned. Vegetable fibers that have an air tube are naturally not as strong as solid fibers like cotton if exposed to direct mechanical rubbing, for instance. But if protected from direct injury by some kind of lining, they withstand the effects of time much better than the other fibers, due to the alpha cellulose content and wax covering.

A Monarch butterfly rests on a milkweed flower.

The story of milkweed would not be complete without mentioning the importance of milkweed oil derived from the seeds, identical in its properties with soy bean oil, and the meal left after the extraction of the oil; this meal has about 40 percent of protein and can form a new source of feed for livestock and chickens, to supplement the short corn crop. And finally, the Department of Agriculture is now working on the plant’s value as an erosion-control crop and soil-binder. Thus does this Cinderella among our wayside weeds blossom out into a highly desirable addition to our paying crops, taking a place that it should continue to hold after the war is over. The Herbarist i Issue 74 2008

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Let us analyze the value of milkweed. The milkweed plant has more than one use; it produces two fibers, both unique in their structure. One is the bast fiber from the outer layer of the stalk, which is a solid fiber of great tensile strength; this quality, plus its pliability and its cellulose content makes this fiber of primary importance to a number of industries, helping to take the place of Manila hemp, another war casualty.

the air content in the floss itself, but also in the tiny air pockets between the fine fibers, of which there are millions in each cubic foot.

EARLY AMERICAN DYEING Herbs for Use and Delight! E. McD. Schetky’s account of early American dyeing is testimony of The Herbarist’s calling. This well-researched and interesting look at dyeing in Colonial America is rich with information and infused with the author’s enthusiasm for her task. Schetky draws on a wide range of sources, some based on oral histories. She uses excerpts and descriptions from rare and unusual books, and leaves the reader with a sense of wonder about the ways that herbs have brought color to our workaday world over generations of American cultural and economic development. The author’s insights are as relevant in practice as they are to understanding the context and significance of the period use of herbs. The recipes she offers are certain to inspire and certain to instill curiosity in the wonderful art of dyeing. — Kathryn Giarratani

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E. McD. Schetky • 1955

arly dyeing in America was practiced by the New England colonists, the German pioneers in Pennsylvania, the early settlers in New York and in the Southern Highlands. In the Southwest, the Spaniards introduced sheep to the Navajos in the late sixteenth century and wool fiber became available and was dyed with native plants and minerals and woven into Navajo rugs. The Indians had long been using colors for skins, baskets, quills used in decoration, and tattooing. Much of it we would call staining, but some produced permanent colors, and undoubtedly these experiences were of value to the white settlers. Comparatively little is known of the indigenous art of the New England Indians, especially of such perishable articles as garments.

Dyeing called for careful work and old diaries tell of long hours of preparation. First the washing, carding and spinning of the wool and gathering materials for the coloring. Then [came]the long hours of preparing the yarn for the dye pot. Favorite colors were blue from indigo and red from madder. The plain colors for everyday use came from native plants or trees such as walnuts and butternuts. The nuts might have been gathered and dried on a loft floor, or covered with water in a large crock or wooden tub until ready for use. The swamp maple, oak, alder, sumac were available, goldenrod flowers, St. John’swort, elderberries and pokeberries. Seeds of broom (Genista tinctoria) were brought over prior to 1628 for Governor Endicott and this plant is now an escape from Salem gardens. Broom did its yellowing.

Continued on page 96 95

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Practically all the dyeing in In my search for the ways and the homes was done after means of early Colonial dyeing, the wool was spun into yarn. I approached many sources of Every family had one large information. The writers on kettle, the so-called 5-pail New England home life, Earle, size, of brass, copper or iron, Rawson, Kamm and Crawford, which was used for dyeing. writing in the 1900s, often had The one exception was the contact with elderly people indigo pot of earthenware who gave answers with many glazed inside and kept on the amusing references, beginning hearth by the fire. “ I remember when...”“ Why, Indigo dyeing was a long we never talked about dyeing process. The first step was in the old days, we just colored Genista tinctoria (broom) provided a yellow dye. mordanting, a term applied our yarns... If the indigo peddler Photo by Steven Foster. to the special process of didn’t come, we used butternut. preparing the wool to receive the dye. They used Butternut gave a different color each month of the wood ashes, soda, salt, vinegar, sumac, hemlock, iron year. Onion skins for yellowing, with indigo added and tin filings to “set the color.” Animal fibers, feathers, gave a green… For black, the ooze of walnut with bone, horn and ivory have properties resembling copperas added and a handful of sumac berries to make it glisten. The roots and sprouts of walnut in the those of wool and behave in a similar way in dyeing. These too came within the range of the housewife. new moon in June... boil for ooze, copperas darkens She knew that certain plants, barks or roots gave it. Saffron, that aromatic and pungent favorite of old more lasting colors, without any knowledge of the gardens, did its yellowing.” In measuring, when asked, chemical properties as we know them today—the “How much?” the answer was,“All you can hold with tannin astringent principles contained in sumac, oxalic two hands.” acid in sorrel, salicylic acid in the lichens. Some colors Colonial women came to these shores with knowledge do not exhaust in the dye bath, and she learned from of home crafts: spinning, weaving and dyeing. They experience when the yarn was the desired color. found many plants, roots and berries which they had The domestic load was gradually lifted with the setting known in their home land, and they experimented up of carding mills and with itinerant weavers arriving with new ones found in the new world. at the homesteads when the family had accumulated

sufficient wool, spun and dyed. Massachusetts had a fulling mill in 1654; the workers had been clothiers in England. Turning the pages of old books reveals a wealth of information. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries there are recorded 23 books on dyeing; the first half of the eighteenth century produced 27, while the second half produced 75, due in great measure to the beginning of the industrial age. Progress from the family dye pot to the mills was inevitable for those families in the towns; country people were not so fortunate and depended on their old methods. One book of the eighteenth century, The Country Dyer by Asa Ellis, printed in Brookfield, Massachusetts, in 1798, gives much information of the period, the names of colors, the use of imported dye materials, and includes instructions for the home dyer. I quote to retain his flavor and understanding: With regard to our manufacture of cloth women and children commonly dictate the colors to be impressed on them. But they frequently make injudicious choice, the color which they dictate fades, the coat is spoiled and thrown aside. True colors retain the complection that is impressed on goods. False ones on wearing and exposed to the sun and air lose all their original tints. Imported dyestuffs in his recipes include logwood, fustics, cochineal, camwood and green wood. Logwood from Mexico was introduced into Europe by the Spaniards early in the sixteenth century. It was used in dyeing purple, blue and black.Young fustic, often called Venetian sumac, is the smoke tree, Rhus cotinus;1 it imparted colors varying from bright yellow and orange to brown and dark olive. (There is no botanical connection between young and 1 2

Now Cotinus coggygria Now Maclura tinctoria subsp. tinctoria

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old fustic.) Old fustic, Chlorophora tinctoria2 of the mulberry family, grew wild in the West Indies and Central America and was introduced into Europe by the Spaniards in the early 1500s. The color imparted to wool varied from gold to lemon color. Cochineal, an insect, Coccus cacti, considered to be a natural dye, came from Mexico; the Spaniards found it being used there about 1518. The Spanish Ministry ordered Cortez to take measures for this valuable commodity to be sent home, and by 1587 it is computed that 400,000 pounds were shipped annually.

1748, the British Parliament passed an act allowing a bounty on indigo from the British Colony, to exclude French indigo from her markets. Before the Revolution, over a million pounds of the dye were annually shipped from Charleston.

Mr. Ellis regrets that our own Government doesn’t consider it worthy of their attention to encourage able chemists to explore the qualities of our fossils, woods, barks, shrubs, plants, roots, weeds and minerals. He feels that the advantages derived would indemnify the Government for the extra expense. His regrets are echoed 15 years later by Partridge in Philadelphia, who says: Of late the shrub sumac employed to lay the ground in paper staining has been ground in Mills, constructed for that purpose, put in casks and sent to Europe. This affords a handsome profit. The Indigo has been the only article for dyes that has been exported toward balancing the imports of other dyestuffs. Samuel Wilson wrote in 1682 in Charles Town,“Indigo thrives well here and very good hath been made.”We know of indigo culture in South Carolina through the letters of Eliza Lucas Pinckney. Lt. Colonel George Lucas sent indigo seed from Antigua, West Indies, to his daughter Eliza in Charleston; later he sent an overseer from the Island of Montserrat to superintend the harvesting and the difficult preparation of indigo. In 1744 Eliza had her first indigo, and in 1747 the first was exported to England. In

Reseda luteola (weld)

Mr. Ellis describes various native plants that produce yellow.“Among them the root of the upland dock, the herb Peterswort, but in a particular manner the arsmart (polygonum) gives a beautiful yellow. If fermented before it is employed in dyeing it will impress a permanent color... Not only those who profess the art but private families may embrace the advantages of the following directions and color their own yarn, woolen, worsted, thread and small pieces of silk as beautifully as the dyer. The principal dyes which people in common will at present wish to reduce to a small quantity

America. It had been grown in the area of Hartford, Connecticut; but one dyer writes of the error committed in packing woad too moist after couching. Its main asset was in combination with indigo in setting the indigo vats. “Saxon Blue,” much used in England, was first discovered in Saxony about 1740. Among the workmen in American dye houses it was called Chymic. This was made from the compound of indigo and oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid), bottled and kept for months: Asa Ellis refers to Saxon green obtained from the chymic with fustic for the yellowing necessary to obtain green.

Partridge on Dyeing by William Partridge was entered in the Clerk’s Office in New York in 1834, a second edition was printed in 1847. He names seven native “drugs,” as he calls goldenrod, sumac, bark of swamp maple, black oak, alder, chestnut and butternut. He recommends the growing of Monarda didyma for coloring pink as nearly equal to the safflower. Among most dyers swamp maple was used for hats and leather dyeing; barberry roots and bark were used almost entirely for coloring leather. The Dyers Companion by Elija Bemiss, printed in New London, Connecticut, in 1815, is written in old-time English, and his introduction is quaint: I am well perfuaded the greater part of my fellow functioners have labored under the fame embaraffments as there has not to my knowledge, any book of this nature: ever before been publifhed in the U.S. His book names the colors being used: claret, portable red, maroon red; the browns are legion: London brown, reddish brown, Spanish brown, London smoke, cinnamon brown, liver brown, snuff brown, bat wing brown and drabs. Typical of all these old dye books is the wealth of information they also contain for the household in general: how to clean copper, to make ink, paint for their houses, furniture polish, wine, etc. To keep weevil from wheat, use elder flowers. To remove corns, two ivy leaves soaked in vinegar 24 hours, apply one at a time. The old foundation of the first fulling mill in Rhode Island is on my own homestead in East Greenwich. A neighbor’s library contains an original copy of The Domestic Continued on page 98 The Herbarist i Issue 74 2008

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The American oak had taken its place in the dye world. Edward Bancroft, one of the founders of the Medical Society of London, was a scientist and chemist. In 1794 he published The Philosophy of Permanent Colors. He had visited both North and South America, and introduced the American oak Top: Phytolacca americana (pokeweed) by Sydenham Edwards into England for the Curtis Botanical Magazine. Courtesy of the National Agricultural in 1775 as a Agricultural Library, ARS-USDA. Bottom: The fruits of staghorn sumac substitute for (Rhus typhina) were used with walnut and copperas to make weld (Reseda black dye. luteola, wild which may be required for one mignonette) He pound are: Navy blue, cinnamon advised then that oak contained 8 and London brown, Black, Saxon to 10 times more coloring matter green, scarlet and crimson.” He gives than weld. Many men of trained directions for each one. experience were coming to America in the nineteenth century; some had Indigo supplanted the woad plant for blue. I found very few references published books in England and we find them reprinted in America. to the woad plant being used in

The Family Dyer and Scourer by William Tucker was printed in Philadelphia in 1817 from the 4th London edition.

Manufacturer’s Assistant and Family Directory of Weaving and Dyeing by J. And R. Bronson, printed in Utica, NY, in 1817, used when weaving was carried on here. Of barks and plants useful in dyeing he lists a durable yellow from arsmart, alder and peach leaves for the domestic dyer, black birch bark for Nankeen, maple bark a durable cinnamon, walnut or hickory a more durable bright yellow than fustic, yellow oak, a better yellow on cotton, linen or wool than any other native plant, yielding more coloring matter than either fustic or weld. Oak bark was being exported at that time from New York for $45 to $60 a ton. Sumac was used in dyeing black. Lombardy poplar gave a tolerable yellow. His directions contain these dyestuffs: Annatto, Brazilwood, cam wood, cochineal, fustic, logwood, madder, Nicaragua, nut galls, woad (employed for the fermenting of the indigo), weld, turmeric used to give an orange tint to scarlet. He also thinks of the needs of the household with recipes for inks, isinglass glue, staining woods, staining horn to imitate tortoise shell, how to prepare oil for gilding, and gilding the edges of books, how to soften horn, how to remove carriage-wheel grease from woolen cloth and so on. After the middle of the nineteenth century, aniline dyes from coal tar products were casting shadows of the future, and now in the twentieth century dyeing from natural plants, roots and barks is left for those interested in the handicrafts. The instructions of 150 years ago are the same for today’s dyeing. Soft water is preferred, and scales that are true in order that dyestuffs will never be used without strict attention to their weights. The U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Booklet, Home Dyeing with Natural Dyes, Miscellaneous Publications No. 230, will give the beginner excellent instructions. Needless to say there is much more to dyeing than meets the eye; it is not a craft to be done hurriedly. Some plants have the properties to dye wool, cotton and linen, such as walnut, broomsedge, indigo and sumac berries. Some will only dye wool. Cotton, linen and other vegetable fibers do not absorb metallic mordants as readily as silk and wool, and require different preparations. For today’s dyer, the mordants used are alum, tin, chrome and iron. In some cases different mordants produce different colors from the same plant. Cream of tartar is used to brighten colors. The standard mordant recipe for one pound of wool is 4 ounces of alum, one ounce of cream of tartar; there are exceptions for very fine wool; less alum is used. Happy dyeing to all amateurs!

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Dyeing wool

Weigh all wool when dry. To prepare for the dye, thoroughly wet the wool, squeeze out excess water and immerse in a large kettle holding 3 to 4 gallons of cold soft water in which the alum and cream of tartar have been thoroughly dissolved. Bring gradually to a boil, then let it simmer for an hour. Leave in the mordant water over night. Remove, squeeze gently (do not wring), put in a bag and and hang in a cool, dark place for four or five days. Rinse well before it enters into the dye. Preparing Plant Material: In the light of the experience of early dyers, barks and roots offer the most permanent colors. Berries and fruits are not satisfactory. But for today’s dyer, there are many more plants tested and found to give beautiful permanent colors. Plants in different sections, and gathered in different seasons, will vary in shades.

Generally 1 pound of roots, 1 to 2 pounds of fresh plant material, 2 pounds of nut hulls are needed for 1 pound of wool. A large kettle is essential. Enamel is a substitute for the copper and brass kettles of the past; iron is not used, as it tends to darken the colors. It is often recommended to soak barks and roots over night, then boil one to two hours, strain, and the liquid is ready for the next step. Add enough water to the dye liquid to have 3 to 4 gallons in the dye pot. When it is lukewarm, enter and spread the wet, mordanted wool quickly, so that it absorbs the color evenly. Simmer or boil 1/2 to 1 hour depending on the directions for different plants. Stir gently but constantly with a long-handled wooden spoon, or sticks, or glass rods. Sometimes wool is left in the dye bath to cool, more often it is removed at once. The first rinse water is the same temperature as the dye bath, and each succeeding rinse is cooler. Rinse until no color remains in the water. Squeeze, roll in a towel to absorb excess moisture. Hang in the shade to dry. Once in the dye pot, the mysteries of color become more fascinating. The old saying “dyed in the wool” was never truer than for the dyer herself.“The proof of the pudding is in the eating,” and I go forth in a dress dyed with cochineal. Mr. Ellis would describe it as “full of lustre, and glares full of blazon.”

Art Tucker provides a remarkably rich survey of the future possibilities of Native American herbs. There is no discussion of Native American uses of these herbs, as many authors would have done. Rather, Arthur dips into his encyclopedic knowledge of herbal and fragrance plants to flick out concise bits of information in short paragraphs about each herb or group of herbs. More than 100 herbs must be mentioned (I couldn’t count), and are grouped together by their botanical families as well as according to their chemical fragrance resemblances. Growth ranges and possible harmful constituents are mentioned. The whole suggests dozens and dozens of starting points for investigating these smellalikes and taste-alikes—botanical identification, hybridization, chemical analyses for possible poisons, ornamental possibilities, studies of range and habit, and so on. As a whole, it is a friendly challenge to the readers to explore the plants around them, as there are treasures waiting to be discovered. And there are plants suggested for almost all parts of the continent. I find it dazzling.

---Bam Postell

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I know there are many Tucker articles in our journals, and I couldn’t begin to pick just one as the best. I would only suggest that this one represents Tucker at his learned, enthusiastic best.

Dr. Arthur O. Tucker • 1990

henever Native American herbs are mentioned, inevitably it is in the context of medicinal herbs. Rarely are native American herbs discussed that might be used in culinary or scenting applications. In commercial cultivation of gathering of herbs, the major companies primarily concentrate upon herbs that have GRAS (Generally Recognized As Safe) status from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, and these are the standard Europeans. Yet, we know that many Native American cultures used herbs for cooking and scenting, and American herbal counterparts exist with similar flavors and scents of the European herbs.

European Herbs with American Counterparts—Identical Species A number of typical European herbs are actually native to North America, too. Included with this category are such familiar herbs as chives, tarragon, and sweet flag. Chives, Allium schoenoprasum, is a species which is circumboreal, that is it occurs in northern regions around the globe in Asia, Europe, and North America. The typical American version is large chives, A. schoenoprasum var. sibiricum. Tarragon, Artemisia dracunculus, is also circumboreal. We know that sweet French tarragon, the sterile cultivar ‘Sativa,’ was selected in the late Middle Ages from the more robust, but rank Russian tarragon.Yet, almost no one has examined the North American forms of this species. Recently we have run across a report of a vigorous, seed-fertile North American selection of A. dracunculus that smells just like French tarragon. Sweet flag, Acorus calamus, is also circumboreal. Sweet flag is easily grown in full sun [along] moist edges of ponds and swamps. In years past the rhizomes were used in liqueurs and sweets, but neither application is allowed today by the U.S. food and Drug Administration, because the leading component, beta-asarone, is carcinogenic. Today, sweet flag should only be used in potpourri; the cut rhizomes have a similar application to that of orris root.

European Herbs with American Counterparts—Similar Flavors & Fragrances As another variation of American counterparts, we have some species that mimic the European herbs (more or less). Included within this category are American pennyroyal, Ozark pennyroyal, Florida pennyroyal, Previous page: Sassafras albidum (sassafras) Photo by Anne Abbott

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The silvery bracts of P. incanum (mountain mint) are excellent for dried flowers. Photo by Anne Abbott.

mountain mints, American cornmint, Jamaican peppermint, St. John’s mint, yerba buena, wild sweet cicely, red bay, California bay, Mexican bay, Mexican oregano, the bee-balms, Mexican tarragon, sweet goldenrod, anise hyssop, licorice verbena, culantro, and papaloquelite. American pennyroyal, Hedeoma pulegioides, was always a weed of my parents’ lawn on the edge of the forest next to their house in Pennsylvania. This was my first exposure to the odor of pennyroyal, and it still reminds me of cut lawns. The fragrance is a perfect mimic of European pennyroyal, Mentha pulegium, but American pennyroyal is a wispy annual, while European pennyroyal is a creeping perennial. Ozark pennyroyal, Calamintha arkansana, is great for rock gardens. During the winter this perennial resembles a red-tinged English pennyroyal, but at the time of flowering, early summer, the wispy stems ascend with small lavender flowers. Florida pennyroyal, Piloblephis rigida (a.k.a. Pycnothymus rigidus or Satureja rigida) is a tender shrub scented of pennyroyal, but I have been only growing it for a few years now and cannot really comment on its horticultural value. Mountain mints, species of Pycnanthemum, are varied in foliage, flowers, and scents, from pennyroyal to lemon. At least 18 different species are native to North America, most growing in full sun on forest edges or open fields. Some, such as P. incanum, have silvery bracts that are excellent for dried flowers and potpourri. Speaking of mountain mints, I could kick myself today. When I was a teenager in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, I used to spend my free time botanizing through the woods and fields surrounding my house. I particularly remember a form of P. virginianum that had the exact odor of lemon meringue pie. I never realized how unique that clump was and I never preserved it.

look like Greek bay but are actually poisonous when ingested. Oregano is really a flavor rather than one species. Even in Europe, several species of Origanum and Thymbra are used, depending upon the geographical locality, ranging from the classic Greek or Turkish oregano, O. vulgare subsp. hirtum, to pot marjoram, O. onites, to donkey hyssop (za’atar hommar), Thymbra spicata. In the Americas, Lippia graveolens is the primary source of the so-called Mexican oregano, but L. micromera and Poliomintha longiflora are also used. Both species of Lippia

Monarda fistulosa. Photo by Anne Abbott

and vibrating in ever-widening circles over the hill and vale.”

Monarda clinopodia. Photo by Anne Abbott.

Sweet cicely, Myrrhis odorata, even has American mimics in the form of Osmorhiza claytonii and O. longistylis. All three species are rich in trans-anethole, the same component in anise and fennel. The American wild sweet cicelies are usually found growing in leaf mold in well-drained Piedmont forests of the northeastern U.S. The Americas include many variations on the theme of bay or laurel. From the “Low Country” of the southeastern coastal U.S., red bay, Persea borbonia, is used in a similar manner to classic Greek bay, Laurus nobilis. In Mexico, Litsea glaucescens, Mexican bay, is used similarly. Now, if you talk to native Californians, they claim that California bay, Umbellularia californica, is the only bay worthwhile growing. However, unlike the other bays, California bay is rich in umbellulone, which is toxic to the central nervous system when eaten and causes convulsive sneezing, headaches, and sinus irritation when inhaled deeply. Even deer avoid California bay in their foraging! Oh, and just because a plant has “bay” or “laurel” in its name does not denote edibility. Some plants, such as mountain laurel, Kalmia latifolia, merely

Now Poliomintha bustamenta 101

are rather tender shrubs and best grown as potted plants, but P. longiflora is hardy to at least southern Virginia in well-drained sunny areas; it also does well in pots. Poliomintha longiflora1 is a rather low shrub with small glossy leaves and long (to almost 1”) lavender flowers. Many of the bee balms, or species of Monarda, are high in thymol, the principal constituent of French thyme. Certainly many of the garden hybrids, derived from hybrids of M. fistulosa, M. didyma, and M. clinopodia, or M.×media, are scented of thyme. I don’t understand why M. citriodora is Continued on page 102 The Herbarist i Issue 74 2008

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American cornmint, Mentha canadensis, is a variation of the cornmint, M. arvensis, of Europe and exists in many differently scented forms across North America. The typical forms are scented of pennyroyal, but some forms range in scent from lavenderlike to peppermint-like. All forms of American cornmint are good, vigorous perennials desiring moist soil and full sun. Jamaican peppermint, Satureja viminea, is a tender shrub best grown in pots [in] all but the mildest areas of the U.S. Along the same lines of scents, St. John’s mint, Micromeria brownei var. pilosiuscula, is found in moist soil along the St. John’s River in Florida (but hardy as far north as Richmond, Virginia) as a creeping, peppermint-scented mint with lavender flowers. It makes an excellent hanging pot plant but is rather susceptible to mealy bugs.Yerba buena, Satureja douglasii, is similar in growth to St. John’s mint with forms scented of pennyroyal, peppermint, or camphor. Mary Elizabeth Parsons, in The Wild flowers of California, says that yerba buena conjures up visions of “long, low rambling mission buildings or adobe, with their picturesque red-tiled roofs; the flocks and herds tended by gentle shepherds in cowls; and the angelus sounding from those quaint belfries,

called lemon bee balm; all the forms that I have grown are scented of thyme. One selection of M. fistulosa from Manitoba has been discovered scented of rose geranium, while some species, such as M. pectinata, or pony beebalm, are rich in carvacrol, the principal component of oregano. In areas of mild winters, French tarragon is almost impossible to grow. The alternative then is Mexican tarragon, Tagetes lucida. While Mexican tarragon has a high estragole content like its French counterpart, it lacks the warm herbaceous undertones that French tarragon has from ocimene and alloocimene. However, unlike French tarragon, Mexican tarragon just luxuriates in heat and is hardy as far north as central Delaware. Small yellow marigold-like flowers appear in late fall, just about the time of the first frosts. Sweet goldenrod, Solidago odora, is also high in estragole and presents another French tarragon substitute. This goldenrod typically grows in sandy soil on forest edges and flowers in late summer (no, the flowers do not cause hay fever—unless you persist in stuffing them up your nose!) The genus Agastache reaches great diversity in the full sun of the arid American southwest. Most are shortlived perennials, some with very beautiful flowers. Anise hyssop, A. foeniculum, a plant native to forest edges of the northeast, is high in estragole and could conceivably be used as a substitute for French tarragon. Its odor is certainly more like tarragon than anise, a plant high in trans-anethole. The essential oil of Lippia alba from Argentina has been reported in the scientific literature as high in piperitone, giving it the odor of peppermint. The L. alba in cultivation in North America was collected from Panama and is actually rather unique because it is scented of anise/tarragon. This is a rapidly growing tender shrub easily trained into standards. The Herbarist i Issue 74 2008

Culantro, Eryngium foetidum, and papaloquelite, Porophyllum ruderale subsp macrocephalum, are American substitutes for the leaves of Coriandrum sativum, cilantro. Culantro is also called spiny cilantro since the leaves are edged in soft (but edible) spines. Other species of Eryngium are grown as ornamentals called sea-hollies, and being a member of the carrot family (Apiaceae or Umbelliferae) culantro produces flowers arranged in an umbel. Papaloquelite can be viewed as a 6-9’ marigold-like plant with oval, blue-green leaves. While the leaves of culantro are a good mimic of regular cilantro, the leaves of papaloquelite combine the cilantro flavor with that of green peppers and cucumbers: delicious! Both species are best grown as tender pot plants north of Texas and southern California.

catalogs and books, we actually cultivate hybrids, most of them S. clevelandii x S. leucophylla, and Californians have now selected such named cultivars as ‘Allen Chickering,’ ‘Aromas,’‘Compacta,’‘Santa Cruz Dark,’ and ‘Whirly Blue.’ I still do not know the botanical origin of the cultivar ‘Winifred Gilman,’ but it is much more delicate in growth. All these hybrids of S. clevelandii are uniquely scented of rose potpourri. What is “honeydew melon” sage? I am led to believe it is related to S. elegans, our pineapple sage. I could go on and on extolling the virtues of our native sages, and the botanical manuals have reported many hybrids and colored variants in the field. We need to do more field work and selection.

American Herbs without European Counterparts Some American herbs do not mimic the more familiar European herbs and are unto themselves. Included in this category are the sagebrushes, many sages, the spice bushes, sassafras, hinojo sabalero, Aztec sweet herb, Paraguayan sweet herb, bluecurls, and Maryland dittany. Two sagebrushes stand out in particular. The classic sagebrush, Artemisia tridentata, brings back memories of our southwestern deserts but does perfectly well in dry areas in my garden in central Delaware. A deep inhalation of its fragrance will open up sinus cavities that you never realized existed. Another species from northwestern U.S., A. suksdorfii, has an odor of both rosemary and sage. Many different odors also exist in our native dusty millers, A. douglasiana. Many American sages have valued scents, and the potential for hybridization has only been hinted at for the creation of novel forms. What is the true Salvia clevelandii like? Amazingly, in spite of all the 102

Piper auritum Photo by Anne Abbott.

The genus Lindera reaches its zenith in Asia, but we have three species, L. benzoin, L. melissifolium, and L. subcoriacea. I am most familiar with L. benzoin from moist but well-drained forests of northeastern U.S. with its spicy fragrance of leaves, twigs, and red fruits. The literature indicates that the leaves of L. melissifolium are scented of sassafras, while L. subcoriacea has a piny lemon scent. The fruits of L. benzoin used to be used as an allspice substitute in the Appalachians and the leaves were brewed into tea, but we really do not know anything about the potentially poisonous alkaloids which may be present (as they are in some Asiatic species). Sassafras, Sassafras albidum, and hinojo sabalero, Piper auritum

the U.S., the Japanese, Koreans, and Chinese employ Paraguayan sweet herb leaves in their packaged teas shipped to the U.S.

Lippia graveolens

Photo by Anne Abbott

(sometimes incorrectly called hoja santa), present health problems because both are rich in safrole. Safrole has been banned by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration since 1960 as a hepatocarcinogen (causing liver cancer). The experiments have been sufficiently replicated and the literature has been repeatedly reviewed, yet sassafras and hinojo sabalero still have their adherents. The Aztec sweet herb (Phyla scaberrima, formerly Lippia dulcis, a.k.a. Tzonpelic xihuitl) and Paraguayan sweet herb (Stevia rebaudiana, a.k.a. yerba dulce or cad hê-é) are both sources of non-carbohydrate

Fig. 2. Is the frost mint in your garden? In addition to a mint-thyme fragrance of the leaves during summer, the dead stems of Cunila origanoides, more commonly, known as Maryland dittany, facilitate intricate, fantastic crystals of ice in early winter. These icy formations may resemble ribbons, translucent fingers, fluted vases, or smooth, curved sculptures. One hypothesis is that the stems act as tiny capillary tubes, siphoning up water to freeze on contact with the frigid air.

sweeteners. Hernandulcin from P. scaberrima is approximately 1000 times sweeter than sucrose, while stevioside from S. rebaudiana is estimated as 267 times sweeter than sucrose. While the U.S. Food and Drug Administration still has not approved their use in

Other American Herbs of Flavor and Fragrance? What other American herbs of flavor and fragrance are still out there? Has anyone examined the Huron tansy, Tanacetum bipinnatum subsp. huronense? Is it similar to regular tansy, Tanacetum vulgare? Conradina verticillata, or Cumberland rosemary, is an excellent rock garden subject with lavender rosemary-like flowers and rosemary-like leaves scented of lavender foliage and needs to be grown more, as do the other shrubby species of Conradina, Calamintha (Clinopodium or Satureja), and Dicerandra. Has anyone eaten or cultivated the Rocky Mountain oregano, Brickellia veronicifolia? Has anyone tried to cultivate the wonderfully resinous and balsamic-scented species of yerba santa, Eriodictyon? How difficult are the pony beebalms, species Monardella? I’ve grown both M. macrantha and M. odoratissima and had them overwinter during mild winters in Delaware. The native species of star anise, Illicium floridanum and I. parviflorum, do not yield an edible fruit like the Asiatic star anise, I. vernum, but the leaves are spicy and may be useful in potpourri. Both native star anises are hardy to Delaware. Do the flowers of sweetshrub, Calycanthus species, dry well for potpourri? In spite of the increasing population in the Americas (and concomitant destruction of the local flora), I am still amazed how little we really know about the flora and uses by native American cultures (pre- and postColumbian). The opportunities still abound for local ethnobotany and horticulture with native flora and cultures, particularly in the southeastern and western U.S., Canada, and Latin America. We must also explore the safety of these native Americans in future cuisines. The native American herbs have the added advantage of being intimately adapted to our varied climates. Bring on the Americans!

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Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 1. The flowers of bluecurls, Trichostema dichotomum, are a marvel of delicacy and scented of pines as well.

Bluecurls, Trichostema dichotomum, is an annual that has reseeded itself, cottage-garden fashion, in my garden. The 1” leaves have no odor, but the flowering stems are heavily coated with resin scented of pines. The related T. lanceolatum, an annual from the Pacific states, is called vinegar weed on account of the presence of acetic acid in the oil. The genus Cunila is a tropical genus; Maryland dittany, C. origanoides, is a temperate exception. This is a perennial herb of well-drained Piedmont forest openings. The sprays of pink flowers appear in late summer, and at this time the mint-thyme fragrance is at its height.

When this article appeared in The Herbarist in 1990, it was during a resurgence of a garden art form much admired for years. This article focused on the use of standards for both indoor and outdoor display and emphasizes the versatility of this art form. In this article, Elise Felton broadened the knowledge of the number of plants that are well adapted to creating herbal standards and showed in great detail how to make a plant into a work of art. Today, those who enjoy creating herbal standards will enjoy the reliable and well-written information—just as current today as it was 17 years ago. — Loretta Clements

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Elise Felton •1990 (Adapted from a chapter in her book Artistically Cultivated Herbs: How to Train Herbs as Decorative Art, published in Spring, 1990 by Woodbridge Press, Santa Barbara, California.)

standard is a plant with a single straight stem and a head of smaller stems and leaves. It can range from six inches to six feet tall. The size of the head must eventually be in scale and proportion to the height of the stem—it can be round, triangular or cone-shaped. A pair of identical standards, a real challenge to the creator, can be a most welcoming sight on either side of the front door of an office, apartment or home. A single standard could be used as an accent in an herb garden, or as a focal point in the corner of a garden. And of course, a standard is a decorative addition on a deck, patio or terrace.

a tourniquet and will leave a mark on the stem if not checked very frequently. Wire stakes come in many lengths and diameters. Start with a 14-gauge diameter and work up to eight-gauge. The stakes should be absolutely straight and wrapped with green floral tape, which is pleasing aesthetically and sticky so that the ties will adhere to the stake. The tape also keeps the metal stake cooler in hot sun, which prevents burning the stem. Attach a “corkscrew” of wire to the base of the lower gauged stakes for stability, or weld three supports to the base Christmas tree fashion. Roots will grow around the corkscrew or tripod. Without support, the longer, heavier stakes wobble and will disturb the roots. When the standard is mature and no longer needs staking, the wire stake

In general, the smaller the leaf of the plant material chosen, the smaller the standard may be. The reverse is also true. Bay laurel (Laurus nobilis) looks well as a five- to six-foot standard. Surely everyone who cooks is familiar with the three- to four-inch long leaves, used often in stews and soups. In spring, if greenhouse grown, or in summer, if left outside all year, masses of fluffy yellow and white blooms cover the plant. Herbal standards are so pleasant to prune; fragrant oils cover one’s fingers with a marvelous scent. Rosemary is a favorite plant for a standard. There are over 40 rosemaries available and it would be best to use a short-leaved one which is not subject to fungal infections, such as ‘Blue Boy,’ and one that is upright in growth.

Creating a Standard Start with four inches of straight plant material. Use a four-inch clay pot and plant the young plant directly in the center. Choose a wire stake, 14-gauge, about eight to ten inches in length and tie this leader to the stake. All leaves must be removed between leader and the stake, because even the smallest stem or leaf will create a bulge in the future trunk of that plant. It is best to tie with nylon stockings cut crosswise. Nylon has some give to it, if not stretched to its limit. String, raffia and twist ties are more rigid and give the designer no freedom to forget those ties. They act like

All illustrations by Hilda Wilson Bourgeois

can be cut away at soil level if a corkscrew or supports have been secured to the bottom, leaving them in place. If the creator is not going to show this standard in a flower show and is not fussy about the looks of a slightly crooked stem, a plastic bamboo stake is fine, and casual tying with air spaces between the stem and stake is possible and acceptable. Plain wooden stakes rot at the soil level. However, the perfectionist will follow a stricter procedure. After the leader has been tied to the stake every ½” to ¾”, all side branches should be trimmed back. An inch of side branches and leaves growing out from the stem will be needed for photosynthesis, the process that makes plants grow. If working with grey or variegated material and the weather is hot and humid, leave more generous amounts of side stems and leaves. Otherwise Continued on page 106 105

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Pleasure & Use

To create a standard, choose a perfectly straight, rooted cutting, which has never been pinched. If one specifies in an order to an herb supply house that the plant requested will be used for a standard, they will most likely ship a straight plant. If a plant with several stems is shipped, it is possible to take one of those stems for training or to take a cutting of the straightest branch, root it in perlite and use it instead.

death is just around the corner. If working during hot, humid weather with a variegated foliage plant such as ‘Variegated Prince Rupert’ geranium, move it into bright light, but out of the sun and do not water unless really dry.

The total height may be anywhere from several inches to several feet. This is a personal decision depending on the size of the leaves, the use for the mature standard and the amount of room available in the winter quarters.

It would be advantageous to understand why pruning stimulates bud growth along the stem. In the leaf well where each leaf stalk is attached to the stem there hides an axillary lateral bud capable of becoming a branch. In a young tree auxins (hormones) are present in the terminal bud, which tell it to keep growing and which inhibit the axillary buds from breaking dormancy. When the tip is pruned away, these axial buds and others lying dormant on the stem, called adventitious buds, will sprout. Pruning may have to be repeated several times to get all dormant buds to grow and become branches.

It is very difficult to winter over large standards in the average American home. A greenhouse will provide the required conditions: light, cool temperature, air circulation and enough heat to keep the temperature above freezing. The rosemaries in my greenhouse will often bloom all fall and winter.

When the leader reaches the top of the stake, cut off all the ties, remove the stake, take another stake twice as long as the present stem, push it into the soil all the way to the bottom of the container exactly on the side where all the side shoots and leaves were removed and tie again. The portion of the stem that has become woody needs very soft ties, only every inch.

All standards and most plants do best if they are put outside in the summer. The growing conditions needed are all there: sun, breezes, heat, rain, and long days. In areas of high wind, standards need protection because they are top heavy. At all times of year it is important to rotate the pot one quarter turn at least twice a week to develop a symmetrical head. Always turn in a clockwise direction and there will never be confusion.

Be very careful with the vegetative tip. Do not try to cut away leaves from the last ½” to 1” as one runs the risk of cutting the growing tip. If the growing tip gets severed, that will be the terminal of the standard and the head must be developed. Perhaps a taller leader was envisioned, but a head developed at any height can be added onto by taking one central branch and making it a leader in order to develop a second head. Then, when that head is developed, the procedure may be repeated for a third head. These topiaries are called “poodles.” When the growing stem reaches the desired height, it may be pinched. To grow the head, allow two to four pairs of side branches to develop at the terminal. Cut away all other leaves and side branches that have been photosynthesizing on the stem. Their work is over. With wire cutters, cut away that portion of the metal stake that runs through the head. As all the growth has been removed from the stem where it comes in contact with the stake, if the stake is left in place up in the developing head no shoots will grow, and as maturity occurs there will be a decided hole on the stake side if it is not cut away. This is not possible to do with “poodles” and the stake must be left in place. The Herbarist i Issue 74 2008

Sometimes the apical tip, the topmost growing tip of an herb in training, will bloom. It is then extremely difficult to get more apical growth so the stem can continue. One can form the head at that juncture or one can take a side-growing shoot and skillfully bend it to become the new leader, cutting away the old leader down to the junction. With some herbs, such as scented-leaf geraniums, one can also get a good straight stem from a sucker shoot. This will grow out of the root ball. Use it for a new leader, tying it to a stake as described. Repot, cutting away all the old plant material and reducing the rootball.

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Pruning is essential for a fine head, meaning a compact crown made up of many short branches. Cut after every two nodes of growth. Allow the lower part of the head to become wider than the top in order to receive sun (this same principle applies to growing a hedge). Most herbs bloom in the summer. If bloom is wanted later in summer or fall, pinch/prune the head up until two months before the desired flowering. Fall pruning is not recommended for plants that remain outdoors or go into cold greenhouses, as nutrients stored in their branches and leaves are needed for winter dormancy. A complete pruning of a head should be done one month before a show. Gibberellic acid, available at garden centers, may be used to increase the growth rate. Follow carefully the directions on the label. A standard will take up to

Herbs for Standards

two years to create, then another two years to mature fully. The growth hormone will lengthen the spaces between lateral buds, but shorten the time to reach a mature standard.

Aloysia triphylla1 (Lemon Verbena)

Cuphea hyssopifolia (Elfin Herb, False Heather). Cyrus Hyde of Well-Sweep Herb Farm takes three shoots, braids them and makes a fine standard from Cuphea.

Geranium standards are short-lived, as they do not develop true woody stems. They take from a year to two years to produce, are decorative for about three years, and then lose their attractiveness. If a geranium head is made up of long branches, they will snap in a strong wind. What remains is not ornamental!

Helichrysum italicum subsp. italicum ‘Nana’ (Dwarf Curry Plant) Helichrysum petiolatum2 (Licorice Plant) Laurus nobilis (Sweet Bay) Lavandula dentata (French Lavender) Lavandula xintermedia ‘Grosso’ (Lavandin). This is a cross between L. angustifolia and L. latifolia. It is used in France for commercial production of lavender oil. Planted in the garden, it is hardy to 0°F. It will fare better in a raised bed mulched with one or two inches of sand, which does not hold water and therefore decreases the risk of fungal infections. Lavandula stoechas (French Lavender, Spanish Lavender) Leptospermum scoparium ‘Roseum’ (Australian Tea Rose, New Zealand Tea Tree) Lippia dulcis3 (Sweet Herb) Myrtus communis ‘Microphylla’ (Dwarf Myrtle, German Myrtle) Myrtus communis ‘Microphylla Variegata’ (Variegated Dwarf Myrtle) Pelargonium xscarbaroviae4 (P. ‘Countess of Scarborough’), (Strawberry Geranium)

As a standard is a form of living art, work is never finished. Watering, fertilizing, pruning, removal of dead leaves. root pruning and repotting goes on throughout its life. But what a joyous reward a finished standard brings. With multi-tiered standards, three or five heads (always odd numbers) are developed along a straight stem. To execute this, allow side growth to develop along the stem at intervals where the balls are to grow. By constant pinching, that is, after every two sets of leaves, compact tufts will develop. The lower one(s) should be larger than the upper, as this shape creates more interest and is apt to be more pleasing. Another method is to develop a standard with a short stem, perhaps five to seven inches from the soil line. When this head is mature, tie one central branch to a stake to grow upwards for several inches. Pinch this leader at the desired height and develop a second head. In a year or so the woody stem will no longer need staking. A third head may be added in a similar fashion. This is a much more time consuming method, taking years, but it is the one that I have used.

Pelargonium grossularioides5 (Gooseberry-Leaved Geranium)5 Pelargonium crispum (Lemon Crispum Geranium) Pelargonium ‘Prince Rupert Variegated’6 (Variegated Prince Rupert Geranium) Pelargonium graveolens ‘Little Gem’7 (Little Gem Geranium —larger-leaved) Pelargonium radens ‘Dr. Livingston’ (Dr. Livingston Geranium —larger skeleton-leaved) Pelargonium scabrum8 (Apricot Geranium—larger-leaved) Pelargonium ‘Torento’9 (Ginger Geranium—larger-leaved) Poliomintha longiflora, Mexican Oregano Prostanthera rotundifolia (Australian Mint Bush) Rosmarinus officinalis ‘Arp’ (Arp Rosemary). As a garden plant, ‘Arp’ is hardy from 0°F to -10° F if mulched with sand. Rosmarinus officinalis ‘Ken’s Prostrate’ (Ken’s Prostrate Rosemary) Rosmarinus officinalis ‘Light Logee Blue’ (Logee Blue Rosemary) Rosmarinus officinalis ‘Tuscan Blue’ (Tuscan Blue Rosemary —upright)

Now Aloysia citrodora Now Helichrysum petiolare 3 Now Phyla dulcis 4 Now P. ‘Lady Scarborough’ 5 Current name is coconut-scented geranium 6 Now P. ‘Variegated Prince Rupert’ 7 Now P. ‘Little Gem’ 8 Now P. ‘Paton’s Unique’ 1 2

Santolina chamaecyparissus (Grey Lavender Cotton) Thymus ‘Argenteus’ (Silver Thyme—treat the leader gently) 9 10

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Now P. ‘Ginger’ Now P. ‘Lime’

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Pelargonium xnervosum10 (Lime Geranium—larger-leaved)

Papaver somniferum (opium poppy). Photo by Steven Foster.

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William O. Foye •1977

he use of plants or plant extracts for medicinal purposes has been going on for thousands of years, and herbalism and folk medicine, both ancient and modern, have been the source of much useful therapy. Some of the plant products currently used, either as such or as derivatives, were often used originally for other purposes, such as arrow poisons, as part of religious or other rituals, or even as cosmetics. Examples of such products include opium, belladonna, cinchona bark, ergot, curare, nutmeg, calabar bean, foxglove, and squill. Many drugs originally used as folk remedies, on the other hand, have been abandoned. The intent, in this brief review, is to present some of the more important drugs, of both the past and present, derived from herbs and non-woody plants. This excludes the antibiotics, obtained from microorganisms, fungal metabolites such as ergot, and those drugs from woody plants, such as quinine and quinidine from cinchona bark, curare from chondrodendrom bark, physostigmine from the seeds of a woody vine, and pilocarpine from a Brazilian shrub. Perhaps the earliest recorded use of a plant medicinal is that of the herb called “Ma Huang,” a species of Ephedra used medicinally in China for over 5,000 years. The important constituent of this plant is ephedrine, which has been used successfully in the treatment of bronchial asthma, hay fever, and other allergic conditions. Probably the major use of ephedrine and other ephedra alkaloids today is as antitussives and oral decongestants for the common cold. Commercial ephedra consists of the dried young branches of various species, including Ephedra sinica and E. equisetina, natives of China, and E. gerardiana and E. nebrodensis1, indigenous to India. The latter are still used as source of the drug. Ephedrine was first isolated from the herb in 1887 and was introduced into Western medicine circa 1925 by K. K. Chen of the Eli Lilly Company.

This deeply researched article would be invaluable to anyone interested in medicine or herbs. Though written in 1977, it is particularly important today when the medical world is turning more and more to plants as aides to the alleviation of physical distresses. From Dr. James Duke’s search in the Amazon rain forest to Varro Tyler’s study of American Indian uses of herbs for medicinal purposes we are learning more and more about herbal uses of other cultures. For those interested in the history of medicinal practices in India and in China, the author’s extensive coverage would be an important source. Although authoritative, the article is clearly written and can be appreciated by all. — Mary Ober

Ephedra equisetina

Photo by Steven Foster.

Ephedra occupies a peculiar position in the vegetable kingdom, since it belongs to a very small class of gymnosperms, the Gnetales. In the gymnosperms, the seeds are situated on an open scale, common to the conifers, instead of in a seed vessel, as in the true flowering plants, or angiosperms. The Gnetales number about 40 living species, 35 belonging to Ephedra. They occur in temperate and subtropical regions of Asia, America, and the Mediterranean; most of the American species, however, are devoid of the alkaloidal drugs. They have marked resemblances to the angiosperms and are considered by some to be relatives of those transitional plant types that existed during the Cretaceous before the advent of the true flowers.

Medicinal Herbs

Related alkaloids (nitrogen-containing basic organic molecules) having structures similar to that of ephedrine and of medicinal importance today are found in a number of plants. For example, ß-phenethylamine, a pressor amine (which increases blood pressure), occurs in mistletoe, Viscum album. Hordenine, a derivative of ß-phenylethylamine, occurs in barley (Hordeum vulgare) and in the cactus Anhalonium fissuratum². Dopamine, another relative of ß-phenethylamine, is found in the banana. The latter compound, under slightly alkaline conditions, undergoes atmospheric oxidation with ease, giving rise to a black pigment. Mescaline, another related pressor amine, is present in peyotl (Lophophora williamsii), and is responsible for the hallucinations caused 1 2

Now Ephedra major Now Ariocarpus fissuratus

Continued on page 110 109

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by this cactus. Peyotl has long been used in religious ceremonies by the Indians of Mexico and the southwestern United States, and its use is now apparently spreading. Mescaline is probably the most widely known psychotomimetic drug; i.e., one which produces changes in thought perception and mood without causing major disturbances of the autonomic nervous system. These drugs are used experimentally for the production of model psychoses, which can be studied in the same way as true mental disorders.

(sleep-producing) and coughsuppressing properties, as well. Codeine and noscapine, also present in P. somniferum, are used extensively today as antitussives in anti-cold preparations. The early Egyptians were aware of the sleepproducing properties of opium. In regard to its use as a narcotic, the habit of opium eating was established in Eastern Europe in the seventeenth century. Thomas DeQuincy described the sensations that precede the sleep caused by opium in his Confessions of an Opium Eater. Despite this ultimately harmful tendency, morphine is still one of the most important drugs of today. Thomas Sydenham, the noted seventeenth century physician and founder of the clinical method, remarked,“without opium I would not care to practice medicine.” Actually, twenty-five alkaloids have been isolated from opium, but with the exception of morphine and codeine (morphine methyl ether), Datura stramonium (thornapple) has been used in the alkaloids are of limited the treatment of asthma and Parkinson’s disease. medicinal importance. An alkaloidal drug having a much more complicated chemical A number of species of the structure, but part of which is family Solanaceae contain some a ß-phenylethylamine moiety, is therapeutically useful alkaloids, morphine, a major constituent of including belladonna, henbane, opium. Morphine was first isolated thornapple, and mandrake. All from opium by Serturner in 1805, of these plants contain alkaloids and was the first plant alkaloid composed of a common base, to be isolated in relatively pure tropine, combined with various form. Opium consists of the dried organic acids. Cocaine, found in latex from the unripe fruit of the leaves of the coca plant, is also Papaver somniferum, a species of a tropine derivative, containing poppy. Opium has been produced two organic acids. The solanaceous commercially in Asia Minor, Turkey, alkaloids produce hallucinations Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Iran, India, and and were the sorcerer’s drugs of China for extraction of morphine; the Middle Ages. the clandestine production, which Both the leaf and the root of is considerable, is probably more the deadly nightshade (Atropa widespread. belladonna) have been used as Morphine is used mainly for the sources of belladonna. This has relief of pain, but it has hypnotic been employed by physicians The Herbarist i Issue 74 2008

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for treating colic, asthmatic and intestinal spasms, and whooping cough, and is presently found in oral decongestant preparations. It also relieved the night sweats of tuberculosis and has been used to diminish the activity of the salivary and gastric glands. The name belladonna arose through the use of the juice of the plant by women in ancient times as a cosmetic, by dilating the pupil of the eye. One of the major uses today of the constituent alkaloid atropine is in ophthalmology for dilation of the pupil. A single drop of solution containing one part of atropine in 40,000 parts of water is sufficient to dilate the pupil of a cat. Solanaceous plants grow commonly in central and southern Europe and have been cultivated extensively, particularly in Hungary. Although atropine can be synthesized, most of it is still obtained by extraction of the Duboisa species of the Solanaceae found in Australia. Hyoscyamus niger, or henbane, is a common herb in Europe and is found as far east as India. It has been cultivated for medicinal purposes both in England and on the Continent, but the major plant source has been Hyoscyamus muticus, found in Egypt. Hyoscyamus has a smaller amount of total alkaloids than belladonna. The thornapple, Datura stramonium, grows wild in southern Europe, and has been cultivated in England, France, and Germany. I recently found some growing within the castle walls of one of the castles of the French kings in the Loire valley. The main use of the isolated alkaloids has been the relief of spasmodic asthma and with some success in the treatment of post-encephalitic Parkinsonism. Datura metel, belonging to the same genus as [D.] stramonium, and indigenous to India, has been the principal source of the alkaloid hyoscine, or scopolamine. The base, scopoline, is

Cocaine was not used in medicine until the latter half of the nineteenth century, and plantations of coca were established in Ceylon and Java. In 1882, Koller and Freud, in Vienna, discovered the anesthetic effect of cocaine on the eye, making eye surgery possible. Cocaine also became used for operations on the throat and larynx and for extraction of teeth. Cocaine and other local anesthetics are frequently injected with adrenaline, a ß-phyenylethylamine derivative, which contracts the blood vessels and localizes the anesthetic action and also reduces the toxic effects on the central nervous system. Cocaine is still considered superior to the synthetic local anesthetics for operations involving the nasal septum. The peyote plant (Lophophora williamsii) has long been used in religious ceremonies by Native Americans. Photo by Steven Foster.

a close relative of tropine. Hyoscine has been used for its hypnotic and sedative properties. Combined with morphine, hycoscine has been employed for pre-surgical anesthesia and also to allay the pain of childbirth. Alkaloids of the same class also occur in mandrake, Mandragora officinarum, a solanaceous plant of the Mediterranean region, especially Greece. Mandrake is one of the oldest drugs known in Western medicine, and at one time was regarded as almost a universal cure for bodily ills. Taken with wine, mandrake was used for relieving toothache; it was also used as a charm. It is used little if at all today, since more powerful synthetic analgesics and local anesthetics are available.

3 4

An alkaloid of complex structure, reserpine, was isolated from the root of Rauvolfia serpentina, a plant indigenous to India, at the Ciba research laboratories in Basel in 1952. Its introduction into Western medicine revolutionized Continued on page 112

Now Erythroxylum novogranatense var. truxillense Now Carapichea ipecacuanha

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The working model on which the organic structures of today’s local anesthetics are based is cocaine, an alkaloid found in the leaves of the coca plant. Coca was “the divine plant of the Incas” and has been

cultivated in Peru and Bolivia for ages. The Indians of South America chew the dried leaves of the shrub, after mixing them with slaked lime or plant ash, to allay the onset of hunger and fatigue. The leaves from three varieties of the plant have been employed commercially, Erythroxylum truxillense3, or Peruvian coca, E. coca, or Bolivian coca, and E. spruceanum, grown in Java. Although cocaine of plant source is used to a limited extent today as a local anesthetic, its use by addicts is considerable. Cocaine addiction is perhaps more terrible in its consequences than those caused by other drug addictions, resulting in physical ill health, the wildest hallucinations, and possibly insanity. Cocaine addiction became one of the common forms of narcotic addiction during World War I. Chewing the leaves, however, does not lead to addiction or ill effects. Cocaine addicts generally sniff a few milligrams of the ground leaf powder up one nostril.

The root of Cephäelis ipecacuanha4, a small plant found in Brazil belonging to the family Rubiaceae, contains several alkaloids of medicinal value, the most important being emetine. Ipecacuanha preparations made from the whole drug have been useful as expectorants in treating bronchitis and whooping cough and as an emetic and diaphoretic. Emetine, a constituent alkaloid, has been an important treatment for amoebic dysentery. This is a common tropical disease caused by the protozoan Entamoeba histolytica, which causes painful ulcers in the intestinal mucosa, and is not to be confused with bacillary dysentery. Although emetine is quite effective in removing the amoebae, it has cumulative toxic effects, so there has been a long search for better agents.

Mediterranean countries; Indian squill is obtained from U. indica6. The action of squill on the heart is much more powerful than that of digitalis, and it is no longer used for this purpose. Red squill contains similar active principles but in addition some that are toxic for rats, and has been used as a rat poison. An alkaloidal drug currently used as a coronary vasodilator is papaverine, originally obtained from Papaver somniferum along with opium. It is now produced synthetically.

Rauvolfia serpentina revolutionized the treatment of hypertension. Photo by Steven Foster.

the treatment of hypertension, since it has the double effect of lowering high blood pressure and acting as a tranquilizer. Its use is now considerable, especially for patients whose hypertension is aggravated by anxiety or emotional disturbances. The root of R. serpentina has been used for centuries in India to treat anxiety, insanity, and snake bite. An embargo imposed on the export of the plant by the Indian government led to a search for the alkaloid in other plants, and it was found in many species of Rauvolfia in various tropical countries, and in other genera of the Apocynaceae. Other plant drugs acting on the cardiovascular system include the so-called cardiac glycosides, which are non-alkaloidal compounds having a steroidal nucleus attached to a sugar derivative. This group of plant drugs is comprised of digitalis, strophanthus, and squill, and their constituents act as heart stimulants. Digitalis consists of the leaves of the purple foxglove, Digitalis purpurea, a plant widely distributed throughout Europe. More frequently utilized today is digoxin, a related glycoside obtained from Digitalis lanata, which is three to four times more potent as a heart stimulant than digitalis. These glycosides also have a diuretic action, which increases their utility in treating congestive heart failure. Strophanthus consists of the ripe seeds of Strophanthus kombe, a climbing plant of considerable size found in tropical eastern Africa. Extracts of the seeds have been used as arrow poisons. The active constituent is the glysocide strophanthin. It acts similarly to digitalis, but is more powerful and requires greater caution in its use. Squill, or white squill, is the bulb of Urginea scilla5, a plant abundant in the

The autumn crocus or meadow saffron, Colchicum autumnale, has been used as a remedy for gout and as an anti-arthritic agent. The plant is found in the limestone regions of Central Europe and is common in Southwest England. The active principle, colchicine, was first isolated in 1820. It is quite toxic, and has the property of bringing cell-division to a halt at a particular stage. It was thought at one time that this property would make the compound of value in treating various tumors, but this promise has not been fulfilled. It has been valuable in cytological studies, however, and its use has led to the discovery of methods for the artificial production of polyploid varieties of many plants of economic importance. Several compounds of plant origin are currently being investigated for anticancer activity in clinical trials. The most important of these are the alkaloids derived from the Madagascan periwinkle, Catharanthus roseus (Vinca rosea). These alkaloids are called leurocristine and vincaleukoblastine. More than 500 species of plants, many being folklore remedies, have been shown to have anti-tumor activity, but practically all of those investigated have lacked clinical utility. Probably the most widely used alkaloid in the world is caffeine, noted for its stimulating effects on the central nervous system. Two alkaloids closely related in structure, theophylline and theobromine, present also in coffee and tea, are presently used to a small extent as bronchodilators. Their commercial source is Theobroma cacao, or cocoa. Caffeine and theobromine have also had past use as diuretics, but synthetic diuretics are now available of much greater potency. Other drugs of plant origin, excluding the antibiotics, which are derived largely from microorganisms, fungal metabolites such as ergot, and compounds like quinine which are obtained from woody plants, many of which are folklore remedies, still enjoy considerable use. Many laxatives and purgatives are of vegetable origin, such as senna (from Cassia spp.7), aloes (from Aloe spp., Liliaceae), rhubarb (from Rheum species), podophyllum (from Podophyllum peltatum, the

Now Drimia maritima Now Drimia indica 7 The genus Cassia has been subdivided, with most going into the genus Senna. 112 The Herbarist i Issue 74 2008 5 6

The Pleasures of Herbs Jean Johnson Givens

The herbs along my garden path Afford me endless pleasure. A sprig from this, a snip of that, Yield flavors that I treasure For punches, fruits, a julep cup Or summer salad bowl, For omelets and roasting meats, Or humble casserole.

Podophyllum peltatum (mayapple) was used as a laxative and purgative. Photo by Robin Siktberg

May apple), and psyllium seed husks (from Plantago species). Liquorice powder probably owes most of its medicinal value to the powdered senna leaf it contains. Previously, drugs of plant origin provided many of the diuretics, emmenagogues, carminatives, rubefacients and dermatologic remedies, expectorants, anthelmintics, miotics, antidiarrheal and hemorrhoidal preparations and have been either omitted or briefly discussed here. Although drugs of plant origin are still employed for some of these uses, synthetic drugs now constitute the major part of the products used. It may be interesting to note that figures from more than one billion prescriptions dispensed from pharmacies in the United States during 1967 show that about 243 million, or about 23 percent of all prescriptions contained one or more products of plant origin. This survey excluded products of microbial origin, and the products included represented about fifty pure compounds and forty crude or semi-purified types of plant extracts. A total of some fifty genera of plants were represented. This percentage of plant drugs had not changed appreciably from that of a survey in 1962, and is most likely much the same today. Plant drugs therefore still constitute a very important part of the medicinals used today, and the remarkable properties of some of these would be difficult to replace.

Bibliography N. L. Allport, The Chemistry and Pharmacy of Vegetable Drugs, George Newnes, Ltd., London, 1943. N. R. Farnsworth,“Importance of Secondary Plant Constituents as Drugs” in Phytochemistry, Vol. III, L. P. Miller, Ed., Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, 1973.

V. E. Tyler, L. R. Brady, and J. E. Robbers, Pharmacognosy, 7th ed., Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, 1976. H. W. Youngken, Textbook of Pharmacognosy, 6th ed., The Blakiston Company, Philadelphia, 1950.

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But most of all, I feel a part Of all who’ve lived before And tended precious garden plots And handed down the lore That proved so useful years ago When herbs meant life and health. Indeed, the measure of a wife Was in her garden’s wealth! The feel of dirt, the baking sun, Relief a shower brings, The skill of propagating plants, The joy of growing things, A sense of continuity With future and the past, Pervade the art of tending herbs A heritage to last. May certain little girls recall When Gramma gave them lunch, Nasturtiums in their sandwiches And borage in their punch!

--From The Herbarist, 1988

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Medicinal Herbs

G. A. Swan, An Introduction to the Alkaloids, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1967.

And oh, the scents that are released By work among the bushes Reward my efforts with perfumes Beyond my dearest wishes! I love verbena, balm, and thyme For wond’rous lemon scent. I pine for pinks and lavender Long after blooms are spent. The happy task of gathering And drying leaves and flowers For potpourri and herbal wreaths Will fill my summer hours. I savor memories evoked By taste or touch or smell Of herbs Grandmother used to grow Much more than I can tell. The lovage growing by the fence, The clumps of bouncing Bet, The sage that flavored sausages Are plants I won’t forget. A sweet old-fashioned climbing rose Festooned with blooms in May Made yellow garlands overhead, A bower for my play.

Portia Meares • 1993

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This article is an attractive and compelling setting-to-rights of an ancient calumny against a practitioner of herbalism as well as a sometimes-brash condemner of the Establishment as he knew it. I commend the author in uncovering the facts concerning a codifier of medicine who nowadays is often thought of as a charlatan. Read it and think kinder thoughts of a pioneer simpler and codifier. — Flavia Redelmeier The Lord hath created Medicines out of the Earth; and he that is wise will not abhor them. — Ecc 38 (xxxviii) 4, Apocrypha

“T

he juice of the leaves snuffed up into the nostrils, purges the tunicles of the brain,” Culpeper says in his Herbal. Now, I don’t know about you, but I know my brain, tunicles and all, needs all the help it can get. Now if I can only find out what a tunicle is. Those who pursue their interest in herbs with any intensity will sooner or later meet Nicholas Culpeper, Gentleman Student of Physick and Astrologie. Culpeper’s Herbal, first published in 1652 under the title The English Physician, has been reprinted at least once every ten years with over one hundred printings over the past 330 years. The most recent, an expensive facsimile edition, came out in 1979. Culpeper’s Herbal arrived in America with the earliest settlers and was the first pharmacopoeia printed in this country. It would be hard to find another publication in the English language, with the exception of the Bible and Shakespeare’s plays, which can claim such popularity. In addition, with no copyright laws in place, Culpeper’s name has been used for endless edited, altered, and rearranged look-alike printings.

Ian Thomas, former owner of eighteen Culpeper Herb Shops in England, provided one clue to Culpeper’s credibility problem in a speech he gave about Nicholas Culpeper to a 1988 herb conference in Baton Rouge. Thomas said that a publisher came in after Culpeper’s death at age 38 in 1654, swept all his papers off his desk and published them unedited, adding the words “Last Legacy” to the title page of Culpeper’s Herbal. “In this book you can see things that in his other works Culpeper said were a lot of rubbish.”Thomas said that Culpeper is maligned largely because “this rubbish” has been perpetrated down through the ages. These remarks teased me into playing investigative reporter. I eventually found the story behind Thomas’ statement. But more of that later. To give the flavor of the controversy, here’s an excerpt from a 1649 royalist publication. The author claims that Culpeper’s London Dispensatory, a translation of the massive Pharmacopoeia Londinensis was done: very filthily [by a man who]... Turned seeker, Manifestarian, and now he is arrived at the battlement of an absolute Atheist, and by two yeeres drunken labour hath Gallimawfred the apothecaries book [the Pharmacopoeia] into nonsense, mixing every receipt therein with some scruples, at least, of rebellion or atheisme besides the danger of poisoning men’s bodies. And (to supply his drunkenness and leachery with a thirty shillings

reward) endeavoured to bring into obloquy the famous societies of apothecaries and chyrurgeons. William Coles, another contemporary of Culpeper, in his small but charming 1657 publication The Art of Simpling, condemns Culpeper for his astrological linking of plants to healing, contending that gathering Simples, according to particular constellations is neither judiciously studied, or sufficiently known. Coles continues: As for ought I can gather either from his Books, or learn from the report of others, that understood them well, he was a man very ignorant, not onely in the forms of Simples, but in divers other things he boasts of Many books indeed he seems to have tumbled over, and transcribed as much out of them, as he thought would serve his turn (although many times he were therein mistaken) but added very little of his own, saving the scurrility wherewith he cloaked his ignorance, and which I am confident, can like no persons, but such as are willing to be cheated with words. In place of astrology, Coles, a Royalist, championed the Doctrine of Signatures, the belief that some plants that look like specific body parts are obviously God’s way of telling us to use that plant for healing problems of those body parts. Coles argues that astrology couldn’t possibly have an effect on plants because, after all, God created plants on the third day of creation and didn’t get around to making the sun, moon, and stars until the fourth day. Continnued on page 116

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Since Culpeper was called a “vituperative quack” in his own day and continues to be ridiculed today, such devotion from the reading public is hard to fathom. Culpeper’s contemporaries waged an attack

on his credibility that would have buried a lesser man.

Such criticism aimed at Culpeper has yet to disappear, as witness this twentieth-century bashing by Eleanor Sinclair Rohde in her 1922 publication The Old English Herbals: Culpeper is a false prophet of herbalism... The most notable exponent of this debased lore [referring to Culpeper’s astrology] was the infamous Nicholas Culpeper. ...It is impossible to read any part of this absurd book without a vision arising of the old [quack] standing at a street corner...holding an interested crowd of the commonfolk by the sort of argument which they not only understand but appreciate... ...Culpeper knew perfectly well what nonsense he was talking, but...he also realized how remunerative such nonsense was and how much his customers were impressed by it. I suspect that most people today draw their assessment from Rohde’s book, since it is on the shelves of many public libraries and easily available from Dover (reprint publishers) whereas most other sources are stored away in rare book collections.

“... The philosophical implication of quantum mechanics is that all of the things in our universe (including us) that appear to exist independently are actually parts of one all-encompassing organic pattern, and that no parts of that pattern are ever really separate from it or from each other.” To see what else lay behind the seventeenth century version of negative press, we must examine Culpeper’s work in the context of his times. Then, as now, politics and vested interests influenced more than parliamentary procedures. England in the mid-seventeenth century was struggling through the Civil War that pitted the Stuart monarchy of Charles I and its Church of England bishops against Oliver Cromwell, Puritan and controversial leader of the parliamentary side of the rebellion.

In Culpeper’s fourth edition of the London Dispensatory, [which was] published in 1653, we find this ringing defense of his coupling astrology and herbs: ... And therefore [God] hath placed Nature in the World ... Therefore as the Cause of Diseases is to be understood to be Natural, so is their Cures also to be effected in a Natural way; and if you do but consider the whole Universe as one unified Body, and Man an Epitomy of this Body, it will seem strange to none but Madmen and Fools that the Stars should have influence upon the Body of Man, considering he being an Epitomy of the Creation, must needs have a Celestial World within himself; for to wind the strings a little higher, if there be a Trinity in the Deity (which is denied, but by none but Ranters) then must there be a Trinity also in all his works, if there be a unity in the God-head, there must needs be a Unity in all his works, and a dependancy between them, and not that God made the Creation to hang together like Ropes of Sand. That may be seventeenth-century nonsense, but I’ve seen contemporary writings that claim such a unity

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exists, though without the theology. That everything in the universe affects everything else in the universe is slowly being accepted as scientific truth as well as being a pervasive belief of mystics. I could quote from a dozen recent sources, but here’s just one sample. Gary Zukav, who explores the cutting edge of physics in his highly acclaimed 1979 book The Dancing Wu-Li Masters, says:

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Culpeper’s own Puritan beliefs led to his fighting on the side of Cromwell where he was wounded in the chest by a musket shot, leaving him in a permanent state of poor health. Culpeper’s father was a well-respected Puritan, but he died shortly before Nicholas Culpeper was born and Culpeper was brought up by his mother. The Culpepers were an ancient and aristocratic family. Nicholas Culpeper was directly descended from Thomas Culpeper, who was keeper of Leeds Castle. Thus Culpeper went against both his aristocratic class and the Church of England, infuriating the Royalists. Culpeper entered Cambridge at age 18, distinguishing himself in classics and profiting in all manner of learning and gaining the applause of the University whilst he remained there. This praise comes from William Ryves, Culpeper’s amanuensis, from whom we will hear more later. Culpeper became fluent in Latin and Greek, having also studied it as a child. But while at Cambridge tragedy struck. His fiancée was struck by lightning and killed at the very moment Culpeper

was on his way to meet her so they could elope. Culpeper never fully recovered from the melancholy that followed her death, and left Cambridge before he graduated. His grandfather, annoyed at this turn of events, apprenticed him to an apothecary. He also studied Physick, and, again according to Ryves, he showed a great deal of wisdom to choose a profession according to his own disposition and inclination. The education and training of physicians in seventeenth century England were much the same as Culpeper’s. Medical studies were based on theory. There was no clinical training or supervised apprenticeship before the doctors practiced on their own patients. In addition, physicians of the day relied in large measure on herbs, as did Culpeper. It was only his training and experience as an apothecary, buttressed by knowledge gained from the herbs he grew in his own garden, that distinguished Culpeper’s practice of medicine. Culpeper’s major calumny, the crime that brought down the full fury of the establishment was his unauthorized translation in 1649 of the College of Physicians’ Pharmacopoeia Londinensis from Latin into English. As noted earlier, Culpeper’s translation was called The London Dispensatory. He wanted to make its contents available to the “vulgar folk,” that is, the common man, and to other apothecaries who could not read Latin. To add fuel to the fire that the translation itself provoked, Culpeper wrote prefaces, called Epistles, sometimes to the ‘Colledg,’ sometimes to the readers. These Epistles, untempered by discretion, accused the Physicians of greed, arrogance, and ignorance. In the first of his four editions of the Dispensatory, Culpeper wrote:

All the ancient physicians wrote in their ancient tongues, and I am confident that there are those in this nation who have wit enough to know that the papists and the College of Physicians will not suffer divinity and physic to be written for our mother tongue both upon one and the same grounds that both color it over with the same excuses. Now, the College’s physicians were deservedly proud of their accomplishment. It was the first time that anyone in the English-speaking world had committed so much medical information to paper. The Pharmacopoeia contained 1,600 simples, 900 formulae for compounds, 200 of which had 10 ingredients. There were 35 animalia, 13 species of dung. All of these were prescribed by the orthodox medical profession of the time. The problem, as Culpeper saw it, was not only that the pharmacopoeia was written in Latin, but also that their “receipts” (prescriptions) contained ingredients that were both rare and expensive. Culpeper felt that England’s poor could treat their own ills better with healing plants they could grow in their own gardens. He was also convinced that English plants, not expensive foreign imports, could best heal English bodies. Physicians recommended the following for use, under the category “Parts of Living Creatures.”The words between parentheses are Culpeper’s. Culpeper: Therefore consider that the Colledg gave the Apothecaries a catalogue of what Parts of Living creatures and Excrements they must keep in their shops. College: The fat, grease, or suet, of a Duck, Goose, Eel, Boar, Herron, Thymallows (if you know where to get it) Dog... Hen, Man, Lion, Hare, Pike, or Jack, (if they have any fat, I am persuaded ‘tis worth twelve pence a grain).Wolf Mouse of the mountains, (if you can catch them) Vulture (if you can catch them)... Dog’s dung... The brain of Hares and Sparrows, Crabs’ Claws, ...an Unicorn, the skull of a man killed by a violent death, an Elephant! ... The cases of Silkworms, the milk of a she Ass, a she Goat, a Woman East and West Bezoar, the stone in the head of a Continued on page 118 117

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The liberty of the Commonwealth is most infringed by three sorts of men: priests, physicians and lawyers. The one sees men in the matter of belonging to their souls, the other in the matter belonging to their bodies, the third in the matter belonging to their estates. Among these, physicians walk in the clouds, their ways not being so discernible to the vulgar view as the ways of the other two are. And that is the reason men are led by their noses by a company of proud, insulting, domineering doctors whose wits were born 500 years before themselves.

Did the Physicians’ anger stay Culpeper’s pen when he came out with the next three editions of his translation? Hardly. Their fury just egged him on. The second time he wrote:

Crab, ...stone in the bladder of a Man, the pizzle of a Stag, of a Bull, Fox Lungs, fasting spittle, ... The excrements of a Goose, of a Dog, etc., etc. Culpeper ridiculed the physicians’ use of dung in words too vulgar for gentle readers. I wondered as I pursued the search for “the real Culpeper” if his more recent detractors saw such lists and reading hastily, thought they were reading Culpeper “receipts” instead of the College’s. We’ll never know. Part of the difficulty in assessing Culpeper is the sheer volume of his work. In addition to the London Dispensatory he was attempting to translate all the major foreign medical works before he died. He was a workaholic, a medical Mozart. Like Mozart, his illness overshadowed the last several years of his life. Even so he seems to have found strength and time to treat as many 40 patients every morning, according to one of his biographers. Although Culpeper’s early death is most often ascribed to tuberculosis, I found this amazing tidbit in a little known book to be described later. William Ryves, wrote that he (Culpeper) was often heard to say that: ... Tobacco [emphasis mine] was the greatest Enemy he had to his Health, but he was too much accustom’ed to it to leave it...[It] first deprived him of the Stomach, and after other evil effects, in The Herbarist i Issue 74 2008

process of time was one of the chiefest hasteners of his death. As for his belief in astrology, most doctors of the time believed in astrology, as did the great majority of their patients. They were furious at Culpeper, not because he espoused astrology, but because he exposed their ignorance of it, to wit this passage: The College of Physicians of London laid all their heads together to hammer out the time when the Squill must be gathered, or taken out of the earth; and the result of all their consultations was this, That it must be gathered at the rising of the Dog-star; and so they very learnedly quoted it in that stately piece of lit, their Pharmacopoeia: but which of the two Dog-stars they mean, whether Syrius or Procyon, or what rising, whether Cosmical, Acronychal, or Heliacal, I know not, nor I think themselves neither; for that a child in Astrology cannot chuse but admire at their learned ignorance. There must be at least as many closet adherents to astrology today as there were in Culpeper’s time. How else to explain the astrology columns in most magazines and newspapers, presumably by demand of their readers? And wasn’t it amazing how little public furor there was when we learned that our former President’s wife used an astrologer in selecting favorable meeting and travel days for her husband? Lots of my garden 118

friends believe ardently in planting by the “signs.” Belief in the mystic side of our human nature dies hard. To compound the problem of assessing Culpeper, many post1654 editions contain material that was added after his death. For that reason I started my “investigation” by unearthing as many of the original publications as I could find. My principal resource was the Rare Book Collection of the National Medical Library in Bethesda, Maryland. What a pleasure it was to play detective in this 330-year-old mystery. I caressed these old books. Their pages still sparkle with the author’s wit, audacity, sincerity and compassion. The force of Culpeper’s religious convictions, of his determination to help the poor people of England learn about medicines they could grow themselves still has the power to persuade the reader. Here, in the third, 1651 edition, he is exhorting the College of Physicians: You cannot serve God and Mammon... The Heathen shall rise up in Judgment against you, and condemn you; For had they dealt so basely with you, as you have done with this Nation; all your skill in Physick might have been written in the inside of a Ring. Colledg, Colledg, thou art Diseased, and I will tell thee the Caus, Diagnosticks, and Prognosticks of thy Diseas. The Caus is Mammon: Cornelius

Agrippa affirms Mammon to be the Prince of the Tempting Devils; and that shews Riches to be the greatest tempters to evil that is. And yet ‘tis some question whether your Diseas be Simple or compound: You carry with you the sin of your first Father Adam: you would be little God-almighties, and have your Wives Goddesses... The cure: Fear God: Love the Saints: Do good to al: Hide not your Talent in a Napkin: Be Studious: Hate Covetousness: Regard the Poor. Know you are English.

Culpeper’s School of Physick, London 1658, was published five years after his death by Alice Culpeper, the herbalist’s widow. This eight-volume work by Culpeper begins with comments and testimonials from [Alice Culpeper], from William Ryves, his secretary, from John Gadbury, who must have been Culpeper’s astrological consultant, and others. Here is Culpeper as seen by those close to him. First Ryves: He was of a clear and established Judgement. Of an eloquent and good Utterance. Of a quick spirit, full of swift Thoughts and mounting. Of sparkling ready Wit, a Gift which doth not alwaies speak men Fortunate...

How’s that for laying it on the line? If he hadn’t dedicated his life to improving the health of the common Englishman, he’d have made a great preacher. To make medicine more accessible to the poor, Culpeper gave exacting directions for making the tinctures, extracts, powders and salves they might need. Even when he is carefully explaining weights and measures, he can’t resist taking the “Colledg” to task: A Congie which (in their former Dispensatory held nine pound), now holds but eight pound, viz. just a Gallon: To miss but one Pint in a Gallon is nothing with a Colledge of Physitians... Besides these, they have gotten another antick way of Mensuration [measuring] which they have not set down here, viz. By Handfuls and Pugils. An Handful is as much as you can gripe [sic] in one Hand; and a Pugil as much as you can take up with your Thumb and two Fingers; and how much that is who can tel [sic]? In truth this way of mensuration is as certain as the Weather-cock, and as various as mens [sic] Fingers are in length, ... for an Handful of green Herbs will not be half an Handful or not above when they are dry: and your mother-wit will teach you that you may take up more Hay in this manner than Bran, and more Bran than Sand. And thus much for their Weights, and also for their Measures: both Ridiculous and Contradictive. This passage is a good example of what another biographer, John Gadbury, says about Culpeper: The making of jesting was so inseparable from him that in his writing things of most serious Concernment, he would mingle matters of levity and extreamly please himself.

As he was an Apothecary formerly himself, so he discerned the errours of Apothecaries...He used not to hansel his experiments, letting loose as some do their mad Receipts into sick men’s bodies to try how well Nature can fight against them, as one writes, whilst they stand by and see the Battel… Gadbury writes that Culpeper had so little regard for money that: …had he been born to Croesus’ Estates, it would have pleased him better to have exchanged it for that of Diogenes. Gadbury also depicts Culpeper as what we might call today a seventeenth-century feminist: Neither while Mr. Culpeper was in health, would he go about to keep her [Alice Culpeper] in the wholesome ignorance and such unnecessary secrets (as some suppose them) but that by her discrete observations of his practice she hath got the start of most of her living, insomuch as since his death, to be no less esteem for her practice than some other gender that boast of their lesser knowledge. Alice Culpeper had a tongue that matched her husband’s. In the School of Physick she writes: The Truth is, throughout the whole World there are no such Slaves to the Doctors as the poor English are... [They] hide the Grounds of Physick from the Vulgar, who for want of a right Knowledge of the true Course and Rules of this Art, having no Estates to pour into their bottomless Purses. And here finally, we discover a partial answer to the “Last Legacy” mystery. It seems that Nathaniel Brook, a publisher and friend of Culpeper’s in his earliest Continued on page 120

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One modern writer who takes a kindlier, gentler view of Culpeper is F.N.L Poynter, medical historian and Librarian of the Wellcome Historical Medical Library, London. His article,“Nicholas Culpeper and His Books,” in the Journal of History and Medicine, Vol. 17, January 1962, lead me to the most revealing look at Culpeper as viewed by his friends and associates, including, it would seem, a pseudo friend.

To the poor he prescribed cheap but wholesome Medicines, no removing, as many in our times do, the Consumption out of their bodies into their purses; not sending them to the East Indies for Drugs, when they may fetch better out of their own Gardens.

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days, brought out, upon the latter’s death, a collection of his earliest writings under the title Last Legacy, a fact resented both by the widow and by Peter Cole, who regarded himself as the sole owner of all rights to Culpeper’s works.

So why should anyone care about a discredited seventeenth-century herbalist and folk hero? Because, for starters, one can’t help but admire a man who cared more for the poor than for his purse. According to Poynter, Culpeper must be viewed in the context of his own time. In his own day, his influence, says Poynter, was far greater than that of his contemporaries, William Harvey, 1578-1657 (who discovered the mechanism of the circulation of blood and the heart as a pump), or Thomas Sydenham, 16241689 (who was founder of clinical medicine and epidemiology). From that perspective Culpeper is a figure of outstanding historical importance.

The record would not be complete without mentioning the contributions of Mrs. C.F. (Hilda) Leyel, the English grand dame of herbalism. Leyel almost single-handedly revived herbalism in 1927 when she opened the first of eighteen Culpeper shops. In 1940, through petitions and with help from friends in high places, Leyel was also responsible for stopping the government from changing the Medical Act of 1858, when Parliament proposed to forbid the practice of herbalism. Leyel is also the person who put Maude Grieve’s two-volume The Modern Herbal into book form.

For me he is an endearing, witty, generous-hearted, compassionate man of the people. He deserves better press than he gets. By its very nature, any medicine is only partial— a mirror of the people who created it, an expression of what they thought of themselves or believed about their world.

In the introduction to her 1947 Culpeper’s English Physician and Complete Herbal: Arranged for Use as a First Aid, Leyel writes that Culpeper was an exceedingly good doctor, intent on curing his patients, and with a knowledge of herbs and materia medica possessed by few doctors.

-Ted Kaptchuk, in the Preface to his book, The Healing Arts, published in1987

So finally, it becomes clear that it was not his professional caliber but his radical politics and the intemperate language with which this seventeenthcentury Ralph Nader attacked the medical establishment that made it try mightily to discredit him. The worst things that can be accurately said about Culpeper, it seems, is that he was arrogant, conceited and brash beyond endurance, and that he was willing to squander both wealth and reputation to serve the poor.

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Opposite page: A page from Culpepper’s British Herbal from the HSA Rare Book Collection.

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