2011 Herbarist 77

Chia! More Than a Pet

Herbal Trees

Bamboo: Nature’s Gift to Re-green the Earth

Want to Make Your Own “Signature” Fragrance? We Show You How!

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

Linda Lain, President

Debbie Boutelier, Vice President

Sue Edmundson, Secretary/Communications Chair

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Open Position, Central District Membership Delegate

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Katherine Schlosser, Mid-Atlantic District Membership Delegate

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Karen Mahshi, West District Membership Delegate

Carol Czechowski, Education Chair

Elizabeth Kennel, Botany & Horticulture Chair

Diane Poston, Membership Chair

Karen O’Brien, Development Chair

Lois Sutton, PhD, Nominating Chair

Jim Adams, Honorary President

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THE HERBARIST

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THE HERBARIST COMMITTEE

Elizabeth Kennel (Chair), Anne Abbott, Caroline Amidon, Joyce Brobst, Carol Czechowski, Linda Lain, Stefan Lura, Sara Moore, Ellen Scannell, Lois Sutton, PhD

The opinions expressed by contributors are not necessarily those of The Society.

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The Herbarist, No. 77

By Laura McNerney

An Herb to Love

Lovage

Iby Carol Ann Harlos

so love the smell of lovage soup. The aroma evokes memories of both multi-course dinners and simple meals of lovage soup and homemade bread for two. Once, I displayed lovage along with other herbs at a dozynki (Polish harvest festival), which celebrates the end of the growing season. I encouraged visitors to touch and taste the fresh herbs I had displayed on a table. I still laugh when I recall a lady visiting the United States from Warsaw, Poland, who said to me, “This is a very important herb.” I naively asked, “Why?” I only knew this herb as delicious.

She replied, “You feed it to your husband. It’s good for you. You know what I mean?” Now I understood the reason that lovage is called lubczyk in Poland, coming from the Polish word lubiec, meaning “to love.” In English it is known variously as bladder seed, Cornish lovage, old English lovage, and Italian lovage. The name lovage apparently refers to the plant’s common use as a love charm or aphrodisiac.

While currently named Levisticum officinale, the architect of the binomial system of nomenclature, Carolus Linnaeus, originally called it Ligusticum levisticum. (Lovage once grew profusely in Liguria, Italy, from which this name probably derived.) Lovage is closely related to Cnidium monnieri, in Vietnam (used in place of parsley), Ligusticum porteri in Mexico, and L. scoticum, which grows in Scotland. Levisticum officinale is native to Europe, but it has naturalized widely.

My husband and I have enjoyed this perennial herb in the garden for years. It is a truly beautiful plant, both ornamental and tasty. Lovage grows in Zones 5 to 8 but seems to grow best when the summers heat up gradually. The plants have a tendency to yellow in prolonged hot weather even when supplied with adequate amounts of water. When lovage comes up in the spring it has a beautiful green color, and because it grows rapidly, it is six feet tall before you know it. I cut mine back in mid-summer to encourage new growth. Lovage is tolerant of any well-drained soil, but thrives in a deep, rich soil with plenty of humus added. A pH range of 5.0-7.6 is recommended for the best growth. Exposure to full sun is best, but partial shade will do. Like its cousins, angelica and fennel, lovage

uses a lot of nutrients from the soil, so regular fertilization is beneficial. I put compost on ours every spring.

Lovage is in the Apiaceae family, which includes carrots, dill, and many other useful plants. Celery is a member of this family and lovage looks much like this better-known relative. The leaves are alternate and ternately (in threes) compound. They are deeply divided, dark green on top and a lighter green on the underside. The leaf petioles sheath the stem at the nodes where the leaves join the plant stem. Stems are hollow and were sometimes used as straws—even now they are used in Bloody Marys early in the season. The stems emerge from the base of the ever-expanding crown. Flowers of lovage are yellow, and like the leaves, have a sharp celerylike, lemony fragrance. Individual flowers are small, each on its own stalk, together they form compound umbels looking much like a flattened umbrella, which is borne on top of a tall stalk. Each tiny flower makes two seeds.

Our lovage has not suffered from any diseases or insect damage. However, my research on this topic led me to the Missouri Botanical Garden, where the tarnished plant bug, celeryworm, and leaf miner were listed as possible insect problems. Early blight and leaf blight (fungal diseases) also were listed as potential problems.

Propagating lovage is easily accomplished by simple division of the parent plant or by digging up part of the plant along its outer edge. I have used both of these methods when sharing my plants with other gardeners. These methods work best in the spring before the plant begins its spring growth, but if the plant pieces are given enough water, lovage

Lovage Soup

1 large can chicken broth

2 leeks washed and cut into slices (I think leeks give a more subtle taste to the soup.)

OR 1 large onion, peeled and chopped

4 tablespoons butter

3 medium potatoes, peeled and chopped

1 cup lovage leaves (removed from stalks, washed and patted dry)

½ to 1 cup milk or cream Melt butter, being careful not to brown it. Add onions or leeks. Cover kettle and turn stove to lowest setting. Gradually sweat the onions to release flavor. Add the prepared potatoes, lovage, and chicken broth. Gradually bring to a boil and then let simmer until potatoes are fork tender. Turn off stove and let mixture cool to room temperature. Add mixture to a blender or food processor. Blend. Return soup to kettle.

Do not boil. Add about half a cup heavy cream or milk to taste. Season to taste or do so at the table. To serve, pour soup into individual bowls. Garnish with fresh lovage leaves. Enjoy!

can be propagated successfully during the summer and early autumn. It easily grows from seed as well.

I have used all parts of this incredible herb except the roots. The leaves, stems, roots, and seeds can be eaten raw or cooked. Leaves are used in soups and tossed into salads. Stems can be chopped and used in stews, or with the leaves, can even be candied and used to decorate pastries. The stems can also be blanched and eaten

like those of celery. I harvest the seeds for use in the kitchen. The seeds taste a bit sweeter than the leaves and are delicious sprinkled on salads or used in breads, rice, cheese, and potatoes. Ancient Greeks often chewed the seeds to aid digestion.

When visiting Poland, I learned that some people in southern Poland call lovage “maggi.” Maggi is a condiment, which tastes similar to soy sauce but is made from lovage instead of soybeans. It is common to find it on the table along with salt and pepper.

Harvesting lovage leaves and stems is simple. Cut the stem being harvested back to the ground to stimulate new growth and to improve the appearance of the plant. Keep the cuttings moist until you are ready to prepare the leaves for use. Remove individual leaves by hand or simply cut them off. Rinse and pat dry on paper towels. Now the leaves are ready for use. The leaves of lovage can be dried for use

later, but I prefer to place washed and towel-dried leaves on aluminum foil, roll them up into a packet, and place it in the freezer. This preserves the green color and more importantly, the oils that give lovage its taste.

Don’t believe those who say that lovage is merely a celery substitute—it has its own unique taste. Both celery and lovage contain a chemical called cedanolid, but lovage contains more so it has a stronger flavor. The taste of lovage leaves reminds me a bit more of fennel rather than of celery.

I have experimented with collecting seeds from my lovage plants, saving seeds from both early in the season and at the end. I cut off the seed heads and gently shake them over sheets of white paper. I have found that those collected later had a much higher germination rate. The more mature seeds are darker in color and fall easily from the spent flowers.

Lovage seeds seem moist even at the end of the growing season. Viewed under a microscope, the seeds look flat and ridged. I store the dried seeds in closed glass bottles and freeze them until the next spring. I have found that their viability drops drastically after one year. Companies that sell seeds suggest sowing lovage seeds outdoors at the site where the plants are to grow. My seeds are started indoors, and I set the plants on the porch to harden off before planting in the ground.

Don’t ignore the beauty of lovage as a cut plant. Combine cuttings from your lovage plants in arrangements with other herbs. Since lovage is easy to grow and so versatile in the kitchen, try some next year in your garden. Experiment with it in your cooking or make the lovage soup recipe found in the sidebar. Make this flavorful plant part of your garden and your cuisine.

Bibliography

Bremness, Lesley. The Complete Book of Herbs. London: Dorling Kindersley, 1988.

Missouri Botanical Garden. http:// www.mobot.org/gardeninghelp/ plantfinder /alpha.asp. (accessed March 24, 2011).

Peter, K.V. (ed). Handbook of Herbs and Spices, vol. 2. Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing, Ltd., 2004.

Peter, K.V. (ed.). Handbook of Herbs and Spices, vol. 3. Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing, Ltd., 2006.

Phillips, Roger. The Random House Book of Perennials, vol. 2. New York: Random House, 1991.

Porter, C.L. Taxonomy of Flowering Plants. San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1967.

Raghavan, Susheela. Handbook of Spices, Seasonings, and Flavorings. New York: CRC Press, 2007.

Tucker, Arthur O. and Thomas DeBaggio. The Encyclopedia of Herbs. Portland, OR: Timber Press, 2009.

Carol Ann Harlos is a garden columnist for Forever Young magazine. An HSA member at large from Amherst, NY, she is president of Herb Gardeners of the Niagara Frontier and writes a monthly newsletter on herbs. Carol Ann is a member of the American Horticulture Society, Niagara Frontier Botanical Society, and the Garden Writers Association. She is a lecturer at Buffalo State College where she teaches mathematics.

Lovage (Levisticum officinale) Lovage leaves have a sharp, celerylike lemony fragrance. Photo from Wikimedia Commons

An Ancient American Herb

by Margaret Conover, PhD

Ch-ch-ch-chia! It’s the pottery that grows! This jingle from daytime television ads is stuck in our heads, and the Chia Pet™ has become an American cultural icon. Chia seeds, spread on the surface of a clever terra cotta figurine, receive water through the porous clay and sprout into an amusing display of green “hair.” Chia Pets™ appeal to the gardener in each of us, young and old, especially to shut-ins and apartment dwellers. They make an excellent gift for the person who has everything. Millions of Chia Pets™ have been sold world wide since their introduction more than 25 years ago. What you may not know is that these seeds, which seem to be grown primarily for entertainment, have become the fastest growing product in the health food market. Where did this idea come from? What are chia seeds and how did they emerge from mere tabletop entertainment to the fastestgrowing (no pun intended) product in the health food market?

Botany

The seeds planted on a Chia Pet™ (Fig. 1) come from Salvia hispanica (chia, Mexican chia), an annual plant native to the arid highlands of Mexico and Central America. Chia is a member of the mint family, Lamiaceae, and has the square stem, opposite leaf

arrangement, and fragrant foliage typical of that family. At maturity, S. hispanica can be more than 10 feet tall. The flowers, which appear late in the fall, are blue or sometimes white. They are arranged in terminal spikes (Fig. 2).

Salvia hispanica is sometimes confused with several other plants also known as chia: Salvia columbariae (golden chia or California chia), S. tiliifolia (Tarahumara chia, lindenleaf sage), S. polystachia (chia sage), S. carduacea (thistle sage) and Hyptis suaveolens (chia grande, chan, or Colima chia). These plants range in distribution from Northern California to Central America. They vary in size and are often weeds of roadsides and impoverished soils. Although the seeds of these plants are similar, when the plants flower they may easily be distinguished by inflorescence structure and leaf shape.

Chia Pet™ History

The first television commercials for Chia Pets™ appeared in 1983, so we assume that they are a recent invention. Yet, in Europe there is a long tradition of sprouting seeds on the exterior of clay figurines. The Danish “karse-grise,” or cress pig, is a collector’s item still in use in many homes, and novelty “grass-growing

heads” were a fad in Europe during the last century. According to a 1912 article in Every Woman’s Encyclopaedia, “The droll effect of a clay-colored gentleman with vividly green hair and a beard will amuse the most fractious of small convalescents and affords interest for many a weary hour.” In the United States, clay heads were popular well into the 1950s (Fig.3). However, since these figurines were sold with cress or timothy seed, none could be called a “chia pet.”

Growing up in the 1930s, Walter “Bud” Houston, of Rushville, Illinois, encountered one of these grassgrowing heads in his local barbershop. Later, while travelling internationally as owner of a lawn and garden products business, Mr. Houston discovered a cottage industry near Oaxaca, Mexico, where effigy figures of bulls and rams were produced (Fig. 4). Chia seeds were sprouted on these figures, which were displayed, as they are today, on street-side altars during the Easter season. In 1976, Mr. Houston commissioned the production of these figures, which he packaged together with chia seeds and distributed to drug store chains. He marketed them as “Chia Pets™. ”

Rights to the Chia Pet™ name and business were purchased in 1983

Figure 1 (left)- Chia seeds are about the size of a poppy seed. Photo by Margaret Conover

Figure 2 (right)- Salvia hispanica in flower. Photo by Margaret Conover

by a young marketing genius from San Francisco, Joseph Pedott, who redesigned the packaging, improved the manufacturing standards, created the “ch-ch-ch-chia” jingle, and produced one of television’s most memorable commercial advertisements.

Initially, Chia Pets™ were sold with seeds of Salvia columbariae, collected from wild Californian plants. Seeds from cultivated Salvia hispanica were substituted after they became readily available. Company literature once stated that chia was “a form of cress,” an error suggesting the historic connection to cress pigs and grass-growing heads.

Now produced in China, Chia Pets™ come in dozens of shapes, including animals, cartoon characters, and political figures. Millions have been sold, and Mr. Pedott, still active in the business at age 80, has donated his records to the Smithsonian Institution (7).

Pre-Columbian Uses of Chia

Before 3400 BCE, many crops were domesticated in the fertile valleys surrounding present day Mexico City. Corn, beans, squash, avocados, chile, agave, amaranths, pumpkins, and chocolate still are grown today and

are considered essential to traditional Mexican cuisine.

Chia was also among these early Mesoamerican crops. When Cortez arrived in Mexico, he found the population of 11 million Aztecs using chia seed in nearly every aspect of their lives. According to some interpreters of Codex Mendoza and other sixteenth-century records, chia was one of the most important Aztec crops, second only to corn (2). Chia seed was eaten daily. It was toasted, ground, and incorporated, along with corn meal, into breads and porridges (4). There is no evidence that sprouts or vegetative plant parts had any culinary value to the Aztecs.

Medicinally, chia seeds were included in herbal infusions made to treat a variety of ailments, presumably because chia aided in the uptake and absorption of active ingredients. Ground seeds were applied as a poultice to aid in wound healing. Oil, pressed from the seeds, was used externally as an ointment or emollient to protect the skin of those exposed to water during their work. There is also some evidence that chia roots were used in herbal infusions to treat respiratory ailments.

Chia seed oil is a “drying oil” similar to the oil of flax seed (linseed oil); when

exposed to air it hardens into a clear, shiny impermeable layer. Like linseed oil in Europe, chia seed oil was used by the Aztecs to make paints with which to decorate objects made from gourds, wood, and clay. Chia oil also was used for making body paints.

The importance of chia in traditional Mesoamerican society is reflected in linguistics; the word chia means “powerful” in the Nahuatl language of the Aztecs. Pictograms or glyphs for some place names include images of chia seeds.

More than 500 years ago, chia cultivation was at its peak. Once a staple crop of pre-Hispanic Mesoamerica, chia disappeared from cultivation after European contact and is now virtually unknown, even in the most traditional Mexican cuisine.

Modern Indigenous Uses of Chia

A few remnant populations of Salvia hispanica can be found growing wild in remote parts of Mexico and Guatemala, and ethnobotanical field research has been conducted with the people living nearby (4). Researchers found that very few of the preColumbian uses of chia still exist, but some new uses were identified.

Figure 3 (left)- Prior to 1960, grass-growing heads like this one were produced in Europe and America and sold by garden centers and florists. Photo by Margaret Conover

Figure 4 (right)- Chia bulls as they were originally manufactured near Oaxaca, Mexico, 1982. Photo courtesy of Chia Pet Company

seed is toasted and ground together with corn to make a flour pinole, which is added to water to make a ceremonial beverage that is consumed on special occasions.

As a medical ingredient for infusions, chia seeds still are used in some villages as they were in ancient times. Several native informants also reported the practice of inserting a chia seed under the eyelid to remove foreign objects, a use unknown to the Aztecs, which may have been patterned after a similar traditional European use of clary sage (Salvia sclarea).

Traditional artisans of Michoacan use chia seed oil, as did their ancestors, to produce lacquered folk art known as macque. The process involves mixing natural earth pigments and chia oil with aje, the fatty exudate from a type of scale insect. Similar to the complicated technique for making Chinese lacquerware, this process is considered by some to be evidence of pre-Columbian contact between China and Mesoamerican civilizations (12).

Consumption of chia seed is infrequent among indigenous populations of Mexico and Central America. In some of these villages chia

Several native informants described culinary uses of chia seed that, although presumably unknown to the Aztecs, were described more than a century ago by botanist Edward Palmer (13). He says, of a dessert made from ground raw chia seeds, sugar, and a little water, “One readily acquires a liking for it and learns to eat it rather as a luxury than on account of its exceedingly nutritious properties.” Palmer also described a beverage made from infusing chia seeds in water to which is added some lemon and sweetener. The beverage was popular throughout Mexico as early as 1850, and was sold from large gourds by street vendors. This beverage is still served in parts of Mexico under the name chia fresca or agua de chia.

A similar chia seed beverage, iskiate, is consumed by the Tarahumara people, who famously run 100-mile races through the rugged mountains of the Sierra Madre in their homemade sandals (11). The chia seed used by the Tarahumara, perhaps wildharvested Salvia tiliifolia or Hyptis suaveolens, is considered by them to be the secret of their endurance.

For the Chumash and other coastal and inland tribes of California, the native species of chia, Salvia columbariae, is both prominent in creation mythology and has been found in burial sites (8). Culinary and medicinal uses for this species are similar to the uses reported for S. hispanica in Mexico.

Rediscovery of Chia

At the beginning of the health food movement in the 1960s, chia began to attract attention. Calling it “Indian

Running Food,” some claimed that Native American warriors could run long distances eating nothing but one teaspoon of chia seed a day (3). In California, Harrison Doyle promoted the use of S. columbariae (6) calling it “the seed that’s worth its weight in gold!” He recounts the legend of a prospector who, stranded and dying beside a watering hole, was offered a cup full of chia seed mush by a passing Indian and was miraculously cured overnight. In The Magic of Chia, author James F. Scheer retells these stories, claiming that chia seeds can cure prostate cancer, Alzheimer’s disease, pre-menstrual syndrome, and more (14). Some modern health food experts have repeated these claims.

Is Chia a “Superfood?”

Chia seed (Salvia hispanica) now is available at health food stores throughout the United States. The seed is sold whole, ground, or as an ingredient in chips and energy bars, and some brands claim “superfood” status for their product. But just how realistic is this claim?

Chia seed has a mild nutty taste and is quite palatable. It is non-allergenic and approved by the FDA as a food. According to the USDA Nutrition Database, just one ounce of chia seed provides 137 calories, 4 grams of protein, 11 grams of fiber, 9 grams of fat, and high levels of calcium (18% DV), phosphorous (27%DV), and manganese (30%DV).

Chia seed is an especially good source of both fiber and omega-3-fatty acids. One ounce of chia seed can provide nearly half the average daily requirement for fiber, much of which is soluble fiber contained in the seed coat. When then seeds are mixed with water, the seed coat absorbs sufficient liquid to increase substantially in volume (Fig. 5) to form “chia gel.” In

Figure 5 - Comparison of hydration of alfalfa seeds (1) with chia seeds (2). 10 grams of seed were added to 100 ml of water and stirred for 15 minutes. Photo by Margaret Conover

one study, diabetics who consumed one ounce of chia seed daily for three months experienced reduced aftermeal blood sugar and plasma insulin levels (10), as well as lower blood pressure and improvement in other heart health factors. However, there is as yet, no evidence for the claim that chia gel can aid in weight loss and the control of acid reflux.

Chia seed has the highest levels of any plant-based source of omega-3-fatty acids: one ounce provides 5 grams of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA). Omega3-fatty acid deficiencies are implicated in many human health problems, including heart disease, eczema, and ADHD (1), suggesting perhaps that there is some truth behind the claims for chia’s “superfood” status. We must wait for the results of more studies.

Chia seed often is recommended as a substitute for flaxseed, which is also high in fiber and omega-3 fatty acids. Chia is superior to flaxseed, however, because it can be digested whole, and does not require refrigeration, as does flaxseed. Chia seed oil is available in capsule form, and has been added to some cosmetics and skin lotions, as an emollient.

Chia seed has become a popular amendment to some animal feeds. Early research shows that omega-3 fatty acid content of eggs will increase when chickens are given chia seed (2). Some horse owners claim that horses fed chia seed exhibit relief from colic and skin conditions.

Sprouts of chia seeds are quite edible and probably high in vitamins. However, levels of the two main beneficial nutrients found in the seed, fiber, and fat are much reduced in the sprouts. The manufacturer of the Chia Pet™ expressly warns against eating sprouts grown on their product.

Two Easy Chia Recipes

Chia Gel

Note: Chia gel is the basis for both recipes. Make chia gel by stirring together 1 tablespoon of chia seed and ½ cup of water. Let sit for 10 minutes, stirring a few times to break up any lumps. Refrigerate for up to 2 weeks.

Chia-mayo (Fig. 6)

Add ½ cup of chia gel to ½ cup of real mayonnaise. Mix well. Refrigerate and use as a mayonnaise substitute, for up to 2 weeks.

Iskiate (Chia Fresca)

Add ½ cup of chia gel to 1 quart of water. Add the juice of 1 lemon and ½ cup of sugar. Stir, then refrigerate ½ hour to allow the flavors to blend. Serve over ice.

Figure 6 - Tomatoes dressed with “Chia-Mayo,” a mixture of mayonnaise and chia gel. Photo by Margaret Conover

What Can You Do With Chia?

• Add chia gel to your morning orange juice.

• Experiment with the fragrance of chia leaves and invent “pot-pourria de chia.”

• Grow chia plants: participate in field trials to test Salvia hispanica as a cover crop and bee plant. http://www.ars. usda.gov/pandp/docs. htm?docid=19317

• Grow a Chia PetTM with your children or grandchildren.

• Plant some of the other “chia sages” mentioned in this article and try to harvest the seeds.

Foliage of Salvia hispanica promises to hold beneficial properties, but at present, these are largely undetermined and untested. The leaves are pleasantly fragrant and so must contain some essential oils, as do other members of the Lamiaceae. Australian herbalist, Isabell Shipard (15), recommends tea made from chia leaves for a “blood cleanser and tonic, also for fevers, pain relief, arthritis, respiratory problems, mouth ulcers, diabetes, diarrhea, gargle for inflamed throats, high blood pressure, high cholesterol and triglyceride levels, and to strengthen the nervous system.” One recent study identified antimicrobial substances in the leaves of a chia sage, Salvia polystachia (5). Research on the therapeutic value of S. hispanica leaves has not been conducted.

Cooking with Chia

Because it is so high in fiber, chia seed generally is added to the diet in small quantities and is rarely the center of attention in any dish. A few tablespoons of chia gel (see sidebar) can be added to many dishes, and chia seed can easily be substituted for flax seed in any recipe. In general, chia recipes fall into the following categories:

• Baked goods, breads, cookies, and desserts, fortified with ground or whole seeds.

• Main dishes, especially stews, casseroles, and egg dishes, enhanced with ground seeds or chia gel.

• Cereals and snacks, in which chia is cooked together with oatmeal for a hot breakfast or added to a granola or energy bar recipe.

• Beverages, which includes fruit juices and smoothies, with chia gel added in order to thicken the texture and to absorb and concentrate the flavors.

• Raw vegan recipes that have no animal or cooked ingredients included. Faux tapioca pudding is a raw recipe worth trying: combine chia seeds with sweetened nut-milk and allow the mixture to gel to a pudding consistency.

The few chia recipe books that have been written are limited in distribution. A collection of online recipes is compiled at www.chiativity.org.

Growing Chia

It should be no surprise to readers that Chia Pet™ sprouts will not survive beyond a few weeks. However, under normal gardening conditions seeds of S. hispanica will sprout and grow to six or more feet with very little effort. Plants prefer full sun, and poor, fairly dry soil. Volatile oils in the leaves deter predation by insects, and there are no diseases of concern.

The main disappointment for those who wish to grow and harvest their own chia seed in North America is that the plants are day length sensitive. The short day length that triggers blooming does not occur until late October, not leaving time to set seed before the first frost of fall. Researchers in Kentucky recently created some mutant strains of S. hispanica which will flower at daylengths of about 15 hours (9), but these are not yet available to consumers. Would-be chia growers may wish to experiment with some of the other chia species. Salvia tiliifolia, in particular, is very well adapted to flower and set seed at temperate latitudes, to the point where it self-seeds and becomes weedy.

Growth Outlook

In the last few years, interest in consuming chia seeds has skyrocketed. Chia seeds have been featured in national publications like the Vegetarian Times and discussed

by television personalities including Dr. Oz on Oprah. Tons of chia seed, grown in Australia and in Central and South America, have been shipped to distributors all over the world, and certified organic seed has come into production. Even the Chia Pet™ company is about to release its own brand of edible chia seed.

There is a great deal more to be learned about chia. Scientific and medical research has just begun to show results. Long distance runners are still testing their improved endurance, cooks and gardeners haven’t had much chance to experiment with cooking and growing methods, and distributors haven’t fully assessed consumer demand.

As more information about chia becomes available, I hope to play a role in the revival of this ancient American herb by informing and educating the public. I provide useful and reliable information about chia, and post new developments on my website: www.chiativity.org. I created educational materials for the middle school classroom, “Beyond the Chia Pet,” with support from The Herb Society of America, which is ready for distribution, as are some pamphlets and activity kits (16). Please contact me for more information and please try chia.

References

1. Allport, Susan. 2008. The queen of fats: why omega-3s were removed from the western diet and what we can do to replace them. Berkeley: University of California Press.

2. Ayerza, Ricardo and Wayne Coates. 2005. Chia: rediscovering a forgotten crop of the Aztecs. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press.

3. Balls, Edward K. 1965. Early uses of California plants. California natural history guide No. 10.

Berkeley: University of California Press.

4. Cahill, Joseph. 2003. Ethnobotany of chia, Salvia hispanica L. (Lamiaceae). Economic Botany 57(4): 604-618.

5. Calzada, Fernando, Lilian YepezMulia, Amparo Tapia-Contreras, Elihú Bautista, Emma Maldonado and Alfredo Ortega. 2010. Evaluation of the antiprotozoal activity of neo-clerodane type diterpenes from Salvia polystachya against Entamoeba histolytica and Giardia lamblia. Phytotherapy research 24(5): 662-665.

6. Doyle, Harrison. 1973. Golden chia: ancient indian energy food. Vista, California: Hillside Press.

7. Edwards, Owen. 2007. Growth industry: for 26 years, marketing whiz Joe Pedott’s green-pelted figures have been holiday-season hits. Smithsonian 38(9): 32-33.

8. Immel, Diana. 2003. Chia: Salvia columbariae Benth. USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center. http://plants.usda.gov/ plantguide/pdf/cs_saco6.pdf (accessed August 17, 2011).

9. Jamboonsri, Watchareewan, Timothy D. Phillips, Robert L. Geneve, Joseph P. Cahill, and David F. Hildebrandt. 2011. Extending the range of an ancient crop; a new ω3 source. Gen. Res. Crop Evol. (in press). DOI: 10.1007/s10722-011-9673-x.

10. Kreiter, Ted. 2009. The whole grain promise. Saturday evening post. 281(2): 70-71.

11. McDougall, Christopher. 2009. Born to run. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

12. Menzies, Gavin. 2008. 1421: The year China discovered America. New York: Harper.

13. Palmer, Edward. 1891. Notes on chia. Zoe 2(2): 140-142.

14. Scheer, James. 2000. The magic of chia: revival of an ancient wonder food. Berkeley: North Atlantic Books.

15. Shipard, Isabell. 2009. Chia: crop potential and uses. Permaculture Research Institute of the USA. http://www.permacultureusa. org/2009/04/05/chia-croppotential-and-uses/ (accessed August 17, 2011).

16. Conover, Margret. 2011. Ch-chchi-chia seeds for inquiry. Science Scope 34(8): 20-24.

Dr. Margaret Conover is a botany lecturer and author who teaches at the New York Botanical Garden and the New York Center for Teacher Development. As a Fulbright Fellow to Australia, she completed dissertation research on the leaf venation patterns of the lily family. She is co-founder of the Long Island Botanical Society and currently serves as newsletter editor. As a recipient of an Education Grant from The Herb Society of America, Dr. Conover created an interdisciplinary curriculum for middle school students entitled “Beyond the Chia Pet.” She owns and operates a small business: Chia Power, which is dedicated to the promotion of the use of chia for fun and food. She is a Master Gardener and a member of the Long Island Unit of The Herb Society of America.

and

Up-Close Personal

A Look at the Mediterranean Herbs and Their Native Habitat

by Susan Belsinger

During the summers of 2008 and 2010, I had the great pleasure of teaching a Holistic Herbal Mediterranean Cooking Class on the isle of Syros in the Aegean Sea. The American College of Healthcare Sciences offered this study-abroad class; Dorene Petersen is president of the college and was my co-teacher. Our classroom base was in the kitchen and on the outdoor patios of the Villa Abela, with a view overlooking Abela Bay. We spent as much time outside the villa as in the kitchen—walking the picturesque country roads, hiking across the hills, swimming in the aquamarine sea, visiting the outdoor marketplace and quite a few tavernas, and sightseeing when we had the opportunity. Come with me now on a tour across the Greek island of Syros, where I will help you envision the native terrain and habitat for the indigenous herbs of the Mediterranean region. By looking closely at how these plants tenaciously cling onto the parched, rockstrewn earth, in scorching heat, with little rain, you will be able to better understand how these herbs grow and what they need in order to prosper in our home gardens.

Riding the ferry from the port of Pireaus, Greece, south to the isle of Syros in the Cyclades was one of those “Aha!” moments for me. On the rocky cliffs that hang over the sea, the native Mediterranean herbs hold on for dear life. Without much soil or rain, in relentless sun and wind, these herbal plants, which we pamper in our own gardens, lead a hardscrabble existence. The reality of their place of origin has caused me to rethink what these herbs really need to grow.

I am enchanted with the herbs that live in this area. From our familiar thyme and sage, to the closely-related Coridothymus capitatus (syn. Thymus

capitatus or Thymbra capitata) and Salvia fruticosa, these plants have adapted in order to survive this rugged existence. They send out deep roots to find moisture and hold on to the rocky slopes; most have thicker leaves to retain moisture and a few even develop barbs or thorns in order to survive grazing animals. Their essential oils are so concentrated they are practically overwhelming.

A group of students, along with Dorene and me, set out from the little port town of Finikis on a walking trail that slowly climbed and crossed a hillside covered in native plants and descended back down to a lovely

private little bay. Hiking across the herb-blanketed rise, then looking straight down—a sheer drop-off to the sea—and outward at the azure waters of the Aegean was thrilling. Being immersed in these wild herbs was a sensory experience that I shall never forget. As we hiked in the hot sun, passing through different groups of vegetation, their various aromas would drift up to meet our noses. This was not a fast hike—it was more like moseying along—since we examined every type of flora, their growing habits, individual characteristics, and their fragrance and flavor as we walked. I brought up the rear since I was taking photos and lingering.

A volunteer caper bush (Capparis spinosa) growing atop a whitewashed wall. Opposite page: An arrangement of freshly picked Mediterranean herbs. Photos by Susan Belsinger

Plants like sage, St. John’s-wort, and thyme were easily recognized, although they were different varieties than I grow at home in Maryland in my Zone 7 garden. I was delighted to see rock rose (Cistus ladanifer) and mastic (Pistacia lentiscus) for the first time. I smelled immortelle (Helichrysum italicum) with its mouthwatering scent before I saw it. Being there in the moment, sharing the exhilaration of discovery with likeminded individuals was awesome. Tears of joy ran down my cheeks. I followed the group on the path across this hillside of magical herbs.

We stood at the end of the trail feeling like we were in paradise, surrounded by fragrant immortelle, overlooking a turquoise, crystal-clear bay with a white sandy beach. What better way to end a long hot hike? I set down my camera, emptied my pockets full of native Mediterranean herbal potpourri, and jumped in the Aegean Sea with the rest of the group.

Some Mediterranean Herbs Along the Way…

Capparis spinosa ~ Caper ~ Cappari Capers—the classic food of Greece— with their uniquely pungent, slightly bitter taste. Oddly, this hardy shrub has bright green, oval leaves in the hot weather and loses them in the rainy season, the opposite of how Mediterranean plants usually adapt. In the summer, one will find the plants almost anywhere a bird might drop a seed—draped from rock walls and ledges or clinging to cracks in old buildings or in the pavement. I saw more than a few growing out of the ruins at the Parthenon! During caper season, the perennial shrubs produce flower buds which are harvested and pickled to make a popular Mediterranean condiment. If the buds aren’t picked everyday, they bloom, producing a beautiful white flower with a fuchsia stamen that lasts only a day before the fruit begins to form. One can look out in the morning and

see locals gathering the immature buds in small buckets and coffee cans. In the market, there are five gallon buckets full of capers for sale by the kilo. Immature buds, small leaves, and the larger fruit pods are all pickled in brine and eaten; they are purported to stimulate the appetite. I find this to be one of the most fascinating plants of the Mediterranean region.

Cistus spp., Cistus landanifer, ~ Rock Rose ~ Ladania, Xistari

I was so excited to find rock rose— and lots of it—on our hike. I’ve taken Rescue Remedy ™ for years and always wondered what the first herbal ingredient listed on the label looked and smelled like. Apparently there are four species of this perennial in Greece, some growing in the mountains and some on the coast. The one I saw was Cistus ladanifer. Thick ovate leaves cover the shrubs and the five-petaled, rose-pink blooms last just one day. The seed pods, which resemble a flower, are a deep, rust brown. I almost thought it was a different species entirely until I saw both bloom and pod on the same plant. Ladanum, or labdanum, is the resin which is gathered from the flowers and is sticky and gum-like. This fragrant and antiseptic substance is used in medicine, ointments and balms, and in incense.

Foeniculum vulgare ~ Fennel~ Marathos, Maratho

Fennel grows wild all over the Mediterranean region. Looking out the car window en route to Villa Abela, I strained to see what the odd white pods were hanging from the fennel along the dry dirt road. I was sure it was Foeniculum, yet couldn’t imagine it bearing a pod. Well the laugh was on me—when I got out to inspect the plants I found them covered with large-shelled snails. The snails were devouring the foliage;

Caper flowers last just one day. A close-up of a just-opened caper blossom is on the left and a one-day old spent bloom is on the right. Photo by Susan Belsinger

Left: Close up of Wild fennel (Foeniculum vulgare)

Below: Immortelle (Helichrysum italicum)

Photos by Susan Belsinger

Above: Rock rose (Cistus landanifer) with just opened pink petals and russet-colored spent blooms.

when they got to the upper part of the stems their weight made the stems bend and splay out. The plants looked sort of comical, as if they were decorated with ornaments. Many of the four-foot tall plants were just long green stems with yellow flower umbels on top, with occasional leafy sprigs near the flowers still left intact. Fennel is a perennial along the coast and in the hills. Its leaves, roots, and seeds are used for medicine and food. Because of the intense heat, the plants had a very strong flavor, less foliage than usual was needed to flavor a dish, which was good since the snails had defoliated much of the fennel, leaving less available. Fennel is used mostly with seafood, namely fish and octopus, and fresh vegetables, such as beans and other legumes.

Helichrysum italicum ~ Everlasting Flower, Curry Plant~ Immortelle

To me, this plant contains the essence of the Greek isles. I was not very familiar or particularly fond of everlastings until I was introduced to immortelle on the dirt road on the way to the villa on Syros. It is a pretty enough plant with small golden flowers, but it was the fragrance that captivated me. When I picked the first branch, I inhaled the scent over and over, trying to decide what it smelled like. At first, it has the aroma of curry—mild, though not overwhelming. I have grown what is known as curry plant at home; however, it did not have the smell of this sun-baked evergreen shrub. I placed the branch on my bedside table and as it dried it seduced me further with its olfactory allure. I decided its bouquet is a combination of curry, toast, and caramel (not the chewy confection, but rather the goldenbrown syrup that one cooks on the top of the stove—the base of a good flan). I fell asleep at night salivating

from this sweet, sensual aroma and awoke hungry. This aromatic herb is ornamental and culinary and is used in rice and vegetable dishes as well as with eggs and other savories. Its essential oil is extraordinary.

Hypericum spp. ~ St. John’s-wort~ Spathohorto

The bright yellow and orange flowers of St. John’s-wort, a plant that first pops into my mind when I think of the herbs from this region, dotted the hills of Syros. Greece has 26 species of Hypericum—some of them looked like the ones in my garden—although the ones abroad are much more compact and covered with more flowers. In summer there are as many fresh bright yellow blooms as there are russetorange dried blooms on every plant. They are dazzling in the sunlight, and their pleasant, slightly spicy aroma floats up as one brushes past. The dried flowers of this perennial plant are collected in summer and infused in olive oil for about 40 days. I saw bottles filled with bright red, macerated St. John’s-wort at the market and purchased one to bring home.

Lavandula dentata ~ Fringed Lavender ~ Levanta, Lavandis

The lavender that I saw, primarily on the mainland of Greece, was growing on the roads and hillsides along with rosemary. Most of the plants I saw up close were Lavandula dentata, which is often called toothed or fringed lavender, and L. stoechas (French or Spanish lavender). There were some on the island of Syros, but unless they were in a garden where they were being watered, they were burned on top with brown and dried sections.

Malva sylvestris ~ Common Mallow Malakhē

This lovely plant survives in poor soil along roadsides and in fields and

waste places. There are more than 16 species of Malva in the Mediterranean region. The purplish-pink flowers of this annual are abundant from summer to fall. Mallow has been used throughout history but seems to be neglected today. The small leaves, shoots, and sometimes the immature seed capsules taste slightly sour and are used in salads, while the flowers are made into tea, often combined with chamomile.

Origanum vulgare ~ Greek oregano ~ Righani

In Mediterranean marketplaces, you will often see oregano dried with the blooms left on and tied in bundles. Truly, it is the herbal sine qua non of both Greek and Italian cuisine.

Origanum vulgare ssp. hirtum is spicy and somewhat hot to the tongue; it is used in everything from soup to salad dressings, meat, poultry, vegetables, pasta, and pizza. It grows wild, perennially in sunny gardens, fields, and hillsides.

Pistacia lentiscus~ Mastic ~ Masticha, Mastika

Mastic is a little-known herb in the United States, but it is used in everything from breads, baked goods, puddings, ice cream and other desserts, to toothpaste, chewing gum, cosmetics, and incense. The gum resin from the mastic tree, which is related to the pistachio tree, is harvested from slits made in the bark. The island of Chios in the Aegean Sea is the center of mastic production; this island has been fought over for centuries since mastic is a valuable commodity. The process of making mastic and seeing the cooperative of medieval villages where the people who grow and harvest mastic live intrigues me; I plan to visit there someday. We found a patch of this or a similar Pistacia species on our hike; they were covered with red fruit, dark evergreen

When I pick or crush in my hand a twig of bay, or brush against a bush of rosemary, or tread upon a tuft of thyme, or pass through incense-laden Cistus, I feel that here is all that is best and purest and most refined, and nearest to poetry in the range of faculty of the sense of smell. ~Gertrude Jekyll

The hillsides are covered with indigenous herbs on the southern side of the isle of Syros. The herbs end abruptly where rocky cliffs meet the Aegean Sea. Photo by Susan Belsinger

foliage, and thorns. The flavor of mastic is resinous and slightly piney, and the shrubs we found had this aroma. I bought mastic tears and powder, chewing gum, toothpaste, and lotion while in Greece and I have enjoyed all of them.

Portulaca oleracea ~ Purslane ~ Andrákla, Glistrída

Although I saw some purslane growing in the wild, it was abundant in the more cultivated areas and sold by the kilo in the marketplace. The succulent leaves and stems were tied in bundles and sold as a fresh green, as well as pickled in jars. The slightly tart, crunchy leaves, which are rich in iron, vitamin C, and omega-3 fatty acids, are used fresh in salads, combine well with yogurt, and are also wilted like a cooked green. Purslane is usually harvested before it flowers.

Rosmarinus officinalis ~ Rosemary ~ Dendrolivano

When riding from the airport into Athens, I saw rosemary bushes, lavender, and chaste trees (Vitex agnuscastus) interspersed with large masses of blooming oleander growing all along the roadsides and the medians. During my stroll through the city, I noticed rosemary growing wild on the hillsides as I neared the Acropolis. The rosemary plants there, as well as on the islands, are tough and compact. The upright plants are dense and the leaves are thicker and shorter; prostrate plants naturally cascade down rock walls and ruins. Sometimes they show burn from the sun and lack of precipitation. The oil and flavor is resinous and piney, though slightly bitter; it is used especially with lamb, pork, poultry, breads, and potatoes.

Greek sage (Salvia fruticosa) has thick,downy leaves and seems to be growing right out of the rock. Photo by Susan Belsinger

Salvia fruticosa ~ Greek Sage~ Phaskomilo, Faskomilo, Faskomilia Greek sage grows wild on the hillsides in dense groupings; it has thick leaves and has a more pungent flavor than the commonly used Salvia officinalis. Greek sage seems to tolerate hot climates, and it is hardy to Zone 8. The strong, pungent, slightly resinous and bitter flavor of sage is used most often with fatty foods such as sausage, meat, game, cheese, and some fish. It is used with beans and legumes, and the leaves are sometimes fried and used as a garnish for other dishes.

Coridothymus capitatus (syn. Thymus capitatus)~ Cretan Thyme, Conehead Thyme ~ Thimos, Thimari This ancient herb is a close relative to Thymus, but it has its own genus and is sometimes called conehead thyme. Due to its high carvacrol and thymol content, it has a strong flavor similar to oregano or savory. Coridothymus capitatus is a compact, woody subshrub covered with small needle-like foliage and lovely pinkish-purple flowers. It is this herb that gives the flavor and fame to Mount Hymettus honey. When Satureja thymbra is not available, Cretan thyme is sometimes used as a substitute in meat, poultry, and game recipes.

Vitex agnus-castus ~ Vitex, Chaste Tree ~ Ligariá

This handsome deciduous shrub grows wild in southern Europe; its leaves are palmate and the flower spikes range from deep purple through lavender blue, to lovely pink, and white. When I first saw it growing — literally abuzz with pollinators on a hillside with rosemary, I had to climb in the thicket to see if it really was Vitex. Although it is not used for culinary purposes, Vitex agnus-castus has been used for centuries for symptoms of both menstruation and menopause, as well as to promote lactation.

Concluding Thoughts about How Mediterranean Herbs Grow

Herbs need sun, water, and good drainage to grow. In my home garden, I provide my herb plants with adequate drainage (considering I have dense clay soil), and water often if there is not enough precipitation. I amend my garden loam with humus, along with mineral mulch. Of course, I have no control over the weather. In the Mediterranean on the rocky slopes, I noted first and foremost that these plants have unbelievable drainage because of the lay of the land. Truly, they are hanging on to rock— limestone, sandstone, and granite— and their roots penetrate the dry, compacted, mineral-rich soil. Summer sun beats down relentlessly and there is very little rain. It does rain in fall, winter, and spring, so they must store this water somehow in order to get through the heat of summer. There is generally a constant sea breeze, so the plants may gain some moisture from the sea air and spray.

As we walked, we noticed that different herbs appeared in groups and patches—or even stripes of certain species running down the hillside. There were patches of Greek sage (Salvia fruticosa), and then big clusters of rock rose, or Thymbra capitata. Then there was a huge group of mastic plants, and then no more, and we’d be back among the rock rose or immortelle. The herbs of the Mediterranean region are well adapted to rocky soil, good drainage, excellent air circulation, and hot sun. Give your grey-and-green Mediterranean herbs these essential elements and they will grow for you.

Bibliography

Belsinger, Susan and Tina Marie Wilcox. “A Gray-and-Green Garden of Mediterranean Herbs.” In Designing an Herb Garden. New York: Brooklyn Botanic Garden, 2004.

Bown, Deni. The Herb Society of America Encyclopedia of Herbs. and their Uses. London: Dorling Kindersley, 1995.

Chisholm, Hugh. The Encyclopedia Britannica 21: 734. http://tinyurl. com/3gnt2gm (Accessed August 1, 2011)

Lambraki, Myrsini. Herbs, Greens, Fruit: The Key to the Mediterranean Diet. Crete: translated by George Trialonis, 2001.

_____. Honey, Wild flowers and Healing plants of Crete. Crete: translated by George Trialonis, 2003. Musselman, Lytton John. Figs, Dates, Laurel, and Myrrh: Plants of the Bible and Quran. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press, 2007.

Petersen, Dorene. Essential Oil of Cistus. American College of Healthcare Sciences, 2006.

Herb Companion. Mediterranean Companions. http://www. herbcompanion.com/Gardening/ Mediterranean-Companions.aspx. (Accessed August 1, 2011)

Susan is an active member of the Potomac Unit of HSA and a recipient of the 2006 Joanna McQuail Reed Award for the Artistic Use of Herbs. She is a well-known culinary herbalist and educator, food writer, and photographer. Susan is a contributing blogger for Taunton Press (www. vegetablegardener.com). Check out her weekly articles, photos and recipes on herbs, gardening, and related subjects.

One of the 26 species of St. John’s wort (Hypericum spp.) which grows in Greece. Photo by Susan Belsinger

PopularChamomile

by Jesse Vernon Trail

Chamomile is a popular herb for good reason. It is possible to relax with a cup of flavorful chamomile tea after having bathed in a chamomile rinse and soothed your chapped hands with chamomile hand cream. The dainty, daisy-like flowers add bright cheer to the garden and the plants have the added benefit of being easy to grow. Some gardens even include a chamomile lawn! However, there is much confusion regarding chamomile, especially among gardeners. The plant has been known by many names, both common and scientific, and chamomile is often confused with daisies or even asters.

Numerous Names

Two delightful plants are often associated with the common name chamomile, Chamaemelum nobile and Matricaria chamomilla. Both of these chamomiles have their own distinctive traits, and yet they also have many similar characteristics, such as their appearance, fragrance, and how they are used. The botanical names of both species have changed several times, and many references still use the older synonyms. The many common names are often specific to certain geographical regions.

The word chamomile is from the Greek kamai (on the ground, referring to the short growth habit) and the Greek melon (apple, suggesting the apple-like fragrance of both species); translated directly, the name would be “ground apple.” Both chamomile and camomile are accepted common name spellings, though chamomile appears to be more frequently used.

Chamaemelum nobile is often referred to as Roman or English chamomile, though on occasion it may also be referred to as corn chamomile, Russian chamomile, sweet chamomile, and

garden chamomile. In older references, it may be listed as Anthemis nobilis or more rarely as Ormensis nobilis; both are names that predate the current one of C. nobile (3).

Matricaria chamomilla is often referred to as German or wild chamomile, though it may also be called Hungarian chamomile, scented chamomile, common chamomile, blue chamomile, sweet false chamomile, scented mayweed, or the fanciful name of pin heads. It is often listed as Matricaria recutita and less frequently as Chamomilla recutita. No wonder there is confusion!

Roman or English ChamomileChamaemelum nobile

C. nobile is a fast growing perennial, becoming branched and spreading or forming a dense mat 9 to 12 inches high when it is in flower. It is an excellent groundcover with finely divided leaves that are somewhat coarser than those of M. chamomilla. Daisy-like flowers have a solid deep yellow central disc, ½ to ¾ inch in diameter, which is surrounded by creamy white ray flowers.

Roman chamomile is hardy to Zone 4 and grows well in a moist (but not wet), well-drained soil with added organic matter and full sun to partial shade. Seed can be sown in spring or fall, though a more reliable propagation method is by spring division of the runners or roots, or by layering. Moreover, to a lesser degree, cultivars can be propagated from cuttings.

Roman Chamomile Cultivars of Note

Chamaemelum nobile ‘Treneague’ is the best cultivar for a lawn, as it does not flower and forms a mossy carpet only one to two inches high with a spread of about 18 inches. Although

Other Chamomiles

A number of other plants are known by the common name of chamomile; all of them are members of the genus Anthemis.

Anthemis arvensis (scentless chamomile, corn chamomile, or field chamomile) is an annual, biennial, or short-lived perennial. Flowering from May to October, it grows 6-20 inches in height and is considered a weed in commercial crop production because it forms dense, permanent patches in the fields, reducing yield. www. agdepartment.com/noxiousweeds/pdf/ Scentlesschamomile.pdf

Anthemis cotula (stinking chamomile, dog fennel, or stinking mayweed) The common names give away this plant’s primary attribute—its strong and unpleasant scent. It is an annual and grows to a height of 6-18 inches. Handling it may cause skin blisters on sensitive persons.

Anthemis marschalliana (Marshall chamomile) A mat-forming perennial that grows up to 12 inches in the summer. This chamomile has finely cut silvery leaves and golden yellow flowers, with woolly, white bracts that have black margins.

Anthemis sancti-johannis is known as St. John’s chamomile.

Many cultivars have been developed from crosses between Anthemis tinctoria and Anthemis sancti-johannis.

Left: The bright yellow, conicalshaped, central discs of chamomile are a prominent feature of the flowers. Photo from Wikimedia Commons

‘Treneague’ can be difficult to establish, it is less invasive and requires less mowing than other species. Chamamelum nobile ‘Flore Pleno’ has double flowers and ranges from four to six inches tall, also with an approximately 18-inch spread. This is the chamomile most commonly used in commercial production (5).

A Chamomile Lawn

Because of its low, mat-forming habit, Roman chamomile is the best species to use for a wonderfully-scented lawn. It can be walked on, releasing a delightful fragrance, though it is best to subject it only to light foot traffic. Keep in mind that chamomile lawns can be maintenance intensive. Compared with grass lawns, chamomile lawns are less hardy and they require diligent weeding. A chamomile lawn will shrivel in a hot, dry area; a layer of mulch will help to keep the roots cooler and the soil evenly moist, though be careful not to bury smaller plants. Planting is best done in spring, placing each plant about six inches on center. Water regularly and deeply, especially at first, to ensure a strong root system. Eventually, the chamomile lawn will need to be mowed, but wait until the root system is firmly established. Until that time, trim the plants lightly with hand shears if needed. Mowing with a lawn mower should be done on a regular basis with the blades set fairly high—about three inches.

German ChamomileMatricaria chamomilla –

This is an annual species with an erect or ascending habit that grows to a variable height of about two feet or taller. Depending on the geographic location and other factors, German chamomile may behave as a biennial or short-lived perennial, but for the most part it is an annual. It is a much-

“In the Victorian language of flowers, chamomile represents adversity. Perhaps this symbolism comes from the ability of the plant to rise again after being stepped on.”

branched (or stemmed) plant, with finely divided foliage and a single terminal flower at the end of each of its many stems. The daisy-like flowers, which appear in abundance from early summer to autumn, are smaller and less strongly scented than Roman chamomile, though they still have a strong, sweet fragrance. Each flower has a raised, central hollow disc receptacle with yellow tubular florets. This is surrounded by a single row of white petals that are often recurved or bent backward. As a matter of fact, the best way to tell the two chamomiles apart is to split the flower receptacle with a fingernail. The receptacle of German chamomile is hollow; that of Roman chamomile is solid throughout.

German chamomile prefers full sun and a moist-to-dry, well-drained soil that is neutral or slightly acidic. It is a good container plant. Seed propagation is quite easy and plants will also self-sow readily (sometimes too readily). The tiny seeds are best mixed with a fine sand (to make sowing more even) and spread lightly where they are to grow. This is usually done in early spring, though sowing in mid-summer is also reported to work well. German chamomile seeds have unstable viability and they need

light in order to germinate. Once they sprout, thin the seedlings to six inches apart.

Similarities and Shared Uses

Both M. chamomilla and C. nobile have daisy-like blossoms, feathery or deeply divided foliage, and a fragrance and flavor somewhat similar to that of apples. Both species will escape cultivation to naturalize widely. Handling these plants can cause dermatitis or similar allergic reactions, though this is rare (4).

Culinary Uses

Chamomile has very few culinary uses. Finely chopped leaves may be mixed with either sour cream or butter for baked potato toppings. Fresh flowers can be used as a garnish or tossed in a salad. In Spain, where chamomiles are called manzanilla (meaning “little apple”), the flowers are used to flavor the finest dry sherries (2).

Chamomile Tea

Chamomile is probably best known as the key ingredient in an aromatic, delicately flavored, slightly bitter tea that is soothing and pleasant to drink. As a testament to its wide popularity, the tea is available for purchase in many places, such as grocery stores and select restaurants. It is easily made from either dried (two teaspoons) or fresh flowers (one teaspoon) per cup. Steep for two to four minutes— not longer unless a really

Right: Early morning dew on the flowerhead of Roman chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile). Next page: Chamomile flowers in various stages of bloom.

Photos by H. Zell

strong flavor is desired—then strain. The flowers can be placed in a tea ball so that straining is not necessary. Honey, lemon, ginger, or peppermint can be added to provide a twist from the original flavor.

Medicinal Uses

Chamomile has been used since antiquity to treat a variety of ailments, including skin disorders, diarrhea and stomach upset, colds, insomnia, anxiety, and gum inflammation. Its most popular use is as a sleep aid. The few scientific studies that have been done show that there is some merit to a few of these treatments. One study found that chamomile had a modest benefit for people with mild to moderate generalized anxiety disorder (1). Another found that chamomile aided in healing mouth sores associated with radiation and chemotherapy treatments (6). It has anti-spasmodic (which is probably why it has historically been used to treat stomach and intestinal cramps), anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial, antifungal, and anti-viral properties (6). Additional research needs to be done, however, to determine chamomile’s true value in treating many of these disorders.

Cosmetic Uses

to chemical means. I have found that using chamomile tea is a simple and safe, yet very effective means of control. The recipe I use in order to ensure a strong brew is to place one chamomile tea bag in four cups of boiling water and allow this to sit for 24 hours or more. Pour the tea into a plant mister and spray the seedlings as soon as they appear. Continue misting each day until the seedlings have developed their second set of leaves. You can also use this tea to water the seedlings from beneath the seed trays. Spray this mixture onto your vegetables, greenhouse plants, and garden plants to help control other fungal diseases such as mildew.

Clinical Psychopharmacology (29)4:378-82.

2. Hylton,William H., ed. 1974. The Rodale herb book. Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press.

Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS).

http://www.itis.gov/index.html (accessed August 19, 2011).

Mills, Simon and Kerry Bone. 2005. Essential guide to herbal safety. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier, Inc. Tucker, Arthur O. and Thomas DeBaggio. 2009. The encyclopedia of herbs. Portland, OR: Timber Press.

6. University of Maryland Medical Center. German chamomile. http://www.umm. edu/altmed/articles/german chamomile-000232.htm. (accessed September 1, 2011).

Bibliography

Boxer, Arabella and Phillippa Boxer. The Herb Book. London: Octopus, 1980.

Hylton, William H., ed. The Rodale Herb Book. Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press, 1974.

Reader’s Digest. The Complete Illustrated Book of Herbs. New York: Readers Digest, 2009.

Chamomile is a common ingredient in many skin and hair products. Both chamomiles are used in rinses for blonde hair. Chamomile is found in skin washes, lotions, bath oils, and hand creams. People who are allergic to ragweed and other members of the Asteraceae family may have an allergic reaction if they use products containing chamomile (4,6).

Pest and Disease Control

Chamomile tea is an old method used to control the deadly killer of seedlings, “damping-off disease,”

Chamomile tea is anti-fungal and antibacterial, so a strong brew can be used with a sponge or cloth to wipe surfaces around the kitchen. Both chamomiles are also reputed to be excellent insect repellents.

References

1. Amsterdam, J.D., Y. Li, I. Soeller, K. Rockwell, J.J. Mao and J. Shults. 2009. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of oral Matricaria recutita (chamomile) extract therapy for generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of

Jesse Vernon Trail is a horticulturist, amateur botanist, and author of several magazine articles. He is an instructor and curriculum developer for topics such as gardening, (including herbs), environmental concerns and awareness, and sustainability issues.

by Jane Knaapen Cole

When most people think of herbs they picture neat garden beds of parsley, sage, rosemary, and thyme. However, many herbs are not what we would traditionally think of as herbs at all; they are wildflowers or desert plants, trees or vines. They grow in the woods and fields, providing healing, flavor, and fiber to cultures living off the land. Before European settlement, the natives who inhabited North America had intimate knowledge of the plants around them, using them in all parts of their lives. This article covers some of the primary herbal plants used by the Native Americans who lived near the Great Lakes and who were part of the Woodland Culture.

The Woodlands included the forested eastern section of North America which stretched east of the Mississippi River and north of Cape Hatteras, and extended north of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence Seaway into the Canadian Maritimes. Traditionally, Woodland Indians were farming, hunting, and fishing people. Tribes in the Great Lakes region include the Ojibwe (Chippewa), Ottawa, Potawatomi, Ho-Chunk, Menominee, Cree, Sauk, Fox, Kickapoo, Miami, Peoria, Illinois, Shawnee, and Mascouten. Most of these were of the Algonkian family. Some of these tribes have stories of migrating from other areas. For example, the Ojibwe tell of coming from the eastern ocean in the 1400s. The Dakota Sioux were driven into the Great Lakes area by EuropeanAmerican expansion. In the 1800s the Oneida were moved to the area by treaty (4).

In coastal areas, native people generally lived near the shore in agricultural villages and moved inland for fall and winter hunting. Those inland might have lived in permanent, settled villages or

moved between two or three central settlements within their territory throughout the year, sending hunting parties onto the prairies for buffalo or into the deep woods for other animals.

Woodland Indians lived in domeshaped wigwams and longhouses of saplings covered with bark or woven mats, which were furnished with sleeping mats and furs, pottery cooking vessels, wooden spoons and bowls, baskets, bags, and other tools or equipment. Their leather and fur clothing was painted or decorated with designs symbolizing plants and animals (4).

Woodland tribes had a network of trade routes and rather sophisticated agriculture practices. They developed and carried with them frost-resistant corn and chose edible nut trees and apple trees to plant near their villages for easy harvest. They semicultivated the raspberry, two kinds of strawberries, grapes, juneberries, mayapple and milkweeds, and they encouraged the growth of plants used for food, medicine, and fiber. Those in the Woodland culture sprouted pumpkin seeds in their houses to have seedlings ready to be planted out when danger of frost passed. They burned the forest to make clearings to plant corn, which had been soaked in a decoction of plants before sowing to protect the seed from insects and birds. They obtained oil from nuts and sunflower seeds and knew which roots were good to eat and how to prepare them. Where sugar maples grew, they established sugar-making camps in early spring and made sugar from maple syrup.

Indian medicine women and men spent years learning which parts of a plant to use and how to prepare them in the proper dosage. Some plants were smoked for medicine, for their

narcotic effect, or to please the spirits upon whose goodwill their existence depended (2).

The native herbs I grow are tolerant of drought and frost, provide a habitat for birds and butterflies, add color to my garden, and connect me to those who lived here and used them in the past. With so many native plants to choose from, I decided to write about the ones in and around my garden.

Yarrow (Achillea millefolium): This is not a native plant, but has been naturalized here so long it is mentioned in the ethnobotany of many native people. It was known as the “life medicine” to the Navaho, who used it for impaired vitality, as an astringent, salve, and pain killer for toothaches. The Ojibwe steamed the leaves and inhaled the smoke to treat headaches and used the flower heads in the kinnikinnick mixture smoked in medicine lodge ceremonies. They and the Meskwaki also used the plant to treat colds, fevers, hemorrhages, cramps, wounds, and children’s diseases. The Winnebago used it in smudges or infusions to treat earaches (1,5) and used the plant to stop bleeding. The Potawatomi placed seed heads on a pan of live coals to produce smoke to keep the witches away (5).

Meadow Anemone (Anemone canadensis): The Ojibwe ate the root to clear the throat for singing, for lumbar pain, and to treat wounds and sores. The Iroquois used it to get rid of worms and counteract witch medicine.

Pasque Flower

(Anemone patens): Native Americans used a poultice of the crushed leaves to treat rheumatism and headaches (2,5). The crushed sepals were placed in the nose to stop

the preservative properties of wild ginger and that it could be used to keep meat from spoiling too quickly (2). They used wild ginger to fight nausea and infection. The flavor of the root has a lemony tang rather than the “bite” of true ginger and was used to season meat and fish. Wild ginger was applied in poultices used to treat burns and bruises and in combination with Acorus calamus (sweet flag) as an infusion for coughs, colds, and bronchial trouble. Native Americans also used wild ginger to treat heart palpitations, to promote sweating, and as a tonic. They also added it to their food for protection from witchcraft. Women used it to induce a normal menstrual cycle and as a contraceptive (2). The root was chewed and the spittle put on bait to enable Meskwaki fisherman to catch catfish (1).

New England Aster (Symphotrichum novaeangliae, syn. Aster novaeangliae), Bigleaf Aster (Eurybia macrophylla, syn. Aster macrophyllus): A poultice of New England aster roots was used for pain, infusions for diarrhea and fever, and a smudge for respiratory problems. The Meskwaki and Potawatomi used it in smudges to revive unconscious patients. The Chippewa smoked New England aster during hunting trips to attract animals. The smoke seemed to resemble the natural scent of deer (2). The smoke was also believed to keep evil spirits away (2). Ojibwe also smoked the young leaves of the aster to attract deer when hunting (1) and used it for food.

bleeding (5). The plant is considered dangerous to use internally—too much of it is poisonous—but the medicine men and women had much skill with using poisonous plants (1).

Columbine

(Aquilegia canadensis): The chewed root was used to treat stomach and bowel troubles. Many tribes used an infusion of columbine to relieve itching caused by poison ivy and other skin rashes (2). The Meskwaki also used the seeds to scent tobacco smoked in ceremonies. The fragrance was believed to hold strong powers of persuasion (2). Seeds were useful to lovers. They were “chewed into a paste and applied to just the right areas” (2).

Wild Ginger

(Asarum canadense): The Ojibwe word for this plant, paabwan, means “seasoner.” Not only did they find it flavorful, they also knew about

Milkweed (Asclepias syriaca, A. incarnata): These plants have provided fiber, food, and medicine for native people all over the United States and southern Canada. Milkweed species have been used in salves, as diarrhea medicine, as a contraceptive, to relieve sore throats, expel tapeworms, treat colic, and to cure snakebites. The chewed root was applied to swelling and rashes. The Winnebago used the spring greens in soup. Chippewa made an infusion from the root to add to a strengthening bath for children (1). Milkweed fiber was also enormously useful and was made into fishnets, wampum belts, and other types of rope (1).

).

Native Americans believed that the fragrance of columbine held strong powers of persuasion. Photo by Robin Siktberg

The blooms of milkweed (Asclepias syriaca

Photo by Robert Vidéki, Doronicum Kft., Bugwood.org

Paper Birch (Betula papyrifera): An immensely important plant to Native Americans, the paper birch was used for medicine, decorations, canoes, shelter, and much more. The root was used to flavor Ojibwe medicine in order to disguise unpleasant tastes (1). It was cooked with maple syrup to alleviate cramps (1). The Potawatomi used birch twigs in a similar manner and also chewed the twigs to relieve the pain from many types of ailments (2). (Little did they know that the twigs contain methyl salicylate, one of the components of aspirin). An infusion made from the leaves and twigs provided relief from skin sores and other ailments (2). Menominee tribes valued birch as a tonic and as a treatment for dysentery and pain. The inner bark yielded a red dye. Snowshoes, sunglasses, wigwams, torches, and of course, canoes were made from the outer bark (2). Broken limbs were wrapped in soaking wet birch bark; when it dried, it shrank around the limb and held it securely in place (2).

Black Cohosh (Actaea racemosa, syn. Cimicifuga racemosa): Native Americans boiled black cohosh root in water and drank it for rheumatism, sore throats, rattlesnake bites, gynecological problems, and childbirth. In the nineteenth century, black cohosh root was often combined with alcohol to produce Pinkham’s Compound; a home remedy for female ailments which later became a patented medicine.

Coneflower (Echinacea purpurea): Usage of the root included a remedy for toothaches (a piece was held on the aching tooth), snakebites, tonsillitis, sore throats, measles, and mumps. Meskwaki also included the root in treatments for stomach cramps and seizures. The Winnebago used the juice as a wash to relieve pain from burns and the plant was used in a smoke treatment for headaches (6).

Boneset (Eupatorium perfoliatum): The whole plant was used to lower fevers, relieve bronchial congestion, and ease aching bones. In nineteenth century America, it was the leading remedy for coughs and colds. The Chippewa

Early Native Americans used the roots of cranesbill geranium (Geranium maculatum) to treat burns and to stop bleeding.

Smudge – Native Americans bundled a dried plant or combination of plants and burned them. The smoke was inhaled for medicinal or ceremonial purposes.

Photo by Robin Siktberg

tied the root fibers to whistles to use as a charm to attract deer (1). In addition to many medicinal uses, the Iroquois used it for sorcery.

Joe Pye Weed

(Eupatorium purpureum): A decoction of the root was a treatment for postpartum pain, gynecological issues (2), kidney, and urinary disorders. A Native American named Joe Pye used this plant to cure fevers and showed American colonists how to use it to treat an outbreak of typhus (1). Menominee and Potawatomi used it in childbirth, the Meskwaki, in love medicine. The latter purpose involved men nibbling on it “for speaking to women when they were in a wooing mood” (1). The Potawatomi carried the flowering top as a good luck talisman when gambling and applied a poultice of the fresh leaves to burns (1). The Ojibwe believed that washing young children in a solution made from the roots would calm colicky infants and strengthen the child (2).

Cranesbill Geranium

(Geranium maculatum): The dried, powdered root was placed on bleeding sores as a styptic (to stop bleeding) (6). Decoctions of the root were used to treat gastro-intestinal problems, mouth sores, sore throats, toothaches, and menstrual problems. The decoction was also made into poultices for burn treatment. Meskwaki applied a poultice made from the root to hemorrhoids (1) and the Iroquois added the root to tea to counteract love medicine.

Golden Seal

(Hydrastis canadensis): A mixture made from the roots functioned as a wash for local inflammations, general debility, cancer, dyspepsia, and as an appetite stimulant. Iroquois also used a concentrate made from the root for whooping cough, diarrhea, liver disease, fever, sour stomach, flatulence, pneumonia, and with whiskey for heart trouble. It was considered to be an effective antiseptic and coagulant (5). Goldenseal rhizomes and roots provided a yellow dye for clothing, weapons, and skin (5).

Wild Bergamot

(Monarda fistulosa): Native Americans treated headaches, colds, coughs, and stomach pains with wild bergamot (1). Bergamot tea helped reduce flatulence and nausea, and the steam of it was inhaled to open up airways (2). The Blackfoot tribe boiled the leaves and placed them on rashes. They also used an infusion made from the leaves to wash out inflamed eyes (2). Warm tea caused sweating, and cool tea relieved “women’s problems” (2). Some tribes used it as a perfume for hair oil, as an insect repellent, and in the sweathouse as incense. Leaves were sometimes boiled with meat to enhance the flavor (2). The Winnebago treated skin problems with it. For the Menominee, bergamot was a remedy for colds and other respiratory problems.

Phlox (Phlox glaberrima, P. pilosa): The Meskwaki used an infusion of the leaves as a blood purifier and as a wash for eczema. A compound containing the root was made into love medicine (6).

St. John’s Wort (Hypericum perforatum): Native Americans used an infusion made from St. John’s wort for fevers and dysentery (6). A salve made of the flowers was soaked in oil to treat sores and diaper rash. They also used it to make red dye.

White Pine (Pinus strobus): The inner bark was an important Menominee medicine for curing chest pains. A poultice made from the inner bark was used to treat wounds, sores or ulcers. The Potawatomi used the pitch as the base for a salve and the dried needles to revive unconscious patients (6). The Ojibwe cooked the young catkins for their meals (6). All tribes used the pitch for caulking and waterproofing. The resin was considered antiseptic and was used to treat wounds or boiled in water to create medicine for everything from coughs to smallpox

Wild ginger’s (Asarum canadense) preservative properties helped to keep meat from spoiling. Photo by Chris Evans, River to River CWMA, Bugwood.org

(2). Needles were made into a tea which was used to treat or prevent scurvy (2).

Mayapple

(Podophyllum peltatum):

The Meskwaki used a tea made from the root to treat rheumatism, induce vomiting, and treat dropsy, but always in a mixture with other ingredients, never alone (1). The Delaware and Iroquois used mayapple as a powerful laxative and purgative in ceremonial rituals; these same characteristics made it effective for treating worms (2). Fruits were eaten raw, cooked as a conserve, or mashed and made into cakes that were dried for future use. Before planting corn, Iroquois protected the seeds from birds and insects by soaking it in a concentrate made from mayapple leaves. Menominee sprinkled a mixture made from the whole plant on potato plants to kill potato bugs (1).

Solomon’s Seal

(Polygonatum biflorum): The Ojibwe used the roots to make a salve to treat wounds and sores, as a cough remedy, and to treat lung ailments. They burned the root for its pleasant fragrance. The Cherokee ground the dried roots into flour, and cooked and ate the greens, as well as the new shoots (2). Meskwaki and Menominee people used it in smudges to revive unconscious patients (1), and the Potawatomi used it to hush crying babies and to ease the pain of burns. The Chippewa made a syrup from the roots and inhaled the steam for headache relief (2).

Red Raspberry, Blackberry (Rubus spp.): Tea from the leaves was given to pregnant women to strengthen the uterus and relieve morning sickness. Leaves or roots were used to relieve troubles from diarrhea, catarrh, and dysentery. An infusion of

the inner bark of the root was made into an eye wash (1). Blackberries were eaten fresh or pressed into cakes and dried for future use, which included making cooling drinks (sometimes sweetened with maple sugar) and flavoring for medicine (1).

White Oak (Quercus alba), Black Oak (Q. velutina), Bur Oak (Q. macrocarpa), Red Oak (Q. rubra): White acorns are sweet and edible even when raw; those of the black and bur oak were eaten after the bitter tannin was extracted. The Ojibwe used them for soup stock or ground them to a mush and cooked them with blueberries and maple syrup (1). The Meskwaki and Menominee also used ground acorns for mush and made “coffee” with the roasted grounds (1). The inner bark was boiled into syrup to treat sore throats, bronchial problems, hemorrhoids, and diarrhea (1,2). The leaves of red oak furnished designs for Potawatomi beadwork; the bark produced a reddish-brown dye (1). Wood was used to make wigwams, tools, and furniture. Baskets were made with fiber from the inner bark (2).

Bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis): Mentioned in every Indian ethnobotany, bloodroot is attributed with a wide range of uses from treating burns, cuts, and stomach ailments, to hemorrhaging and blood disorders. The Ojibwe put drops of “blood” from the root on maple sugar to suck for coughs and sore throats (1). Mashed roots were used as a cold remedy, to treat cuts and skin rashes, and as an insect repellent (2). The roots were even used to treat venereal disease and to induce abortion (2). A more cheerful use was mentioned by H.W. Youngken: “Bachelors of some of the tribes, after rubbing some of the red milky juice on their hands, would

Raspberries and blackberries (Rubus spp.) were cultivated by Native American tribes for food and medicine.

contrive to shake hands with the girls they desired; if successful in this, after five or six days, these girls are said to have been found willing to marry them.” The root provided a red or orange dye for skin, clothes, baskets, mats, and weapons.

Elder (Sambucus canadensis): Elderflower and elderberry teas were used to promote perspiration and dispel catarrh. Tribes used tea made from the inner bark as emetics, purgatives, and painkillers (1). A tea made from the dried flowers was given to feverish patients (1). Crushed leaves and inner bark were made into an insect repellant or a poultice for swellings and cuts. Elderberries make a purple to lavender dye. The branches of the tree have hollow stems with pith that is easily removed; they were perfect for making drinking straws, flutes or whistles…or pop guns (1).

Goldenrod (Solidago canadensis, S. odora, Oligoneuron rigidum var. rigidum, syn. Solidago rigida): A poultice from the root helped to heal boils, burns, arthritis, and headaches (2). Tea made from the flowers treated sore throats, snakebites, fevers, and urinary problems (2,5). The root was

considered to be a good luck charm when gambling. Roots and stalks were combined with bear grease for hair ointment. A deep yellow dye is produced from the flowers (2).

Slippery Elm (Ulmus rubra): Native Americans used slippery elm to soothe respiratory and digestive tracts. A tea from the inner bark was utilized as a laxative and to help ease labor pains. Additionally, it was made into a poultice for inflamed eyes, skin wounds, sore throats, and gastrointestinal irritation (1). Lashing was made from inner bark fibers. The bark was strong enough to make folded buckets and other containers, and shingles to cover wigwams (1). The Chippewa cut flat dolls out of the bark to make toys for their children.

Stinging Nettle (Urtica dioica) and Wood Nettle (Laportea canadensis): The Ojibwe and Menominee used both species to make sewing twine and cordage. Wood nettle was made into two grades of twine: one for sewing and one for making fishing nets. In earlier times, women’s dresses were made from the fiber (1). Both of these tribes and the Meskwaki used wood nettle as a diuretic (1). Forest Potawatomi used stinging nettle leaves and roots to treat fevers and the “rind” of the nettle as fiber (1). While the painful stingers seemed to make this plant (full of vitamins) unpalatable, many Native Americans knew the stinging would disappear when the plant was cooked (2).

Culver’s Root (Veronicastrum virginicum): Native tribes knew the root was poisonous when fresh, so they cured it for a year after digging. Culver’s root was known to be a powerful laxative and emetic. Tea made from the root was used ceremonially to cleanse the blood and

spirit (2,5). The tea was believed to have antiseptic properties and was also used for fainting spells and to treat kidney stones (2). Native Americans believed it cured typhus and “bilious” fevers, chills, diarrhea, constipation, seizures, and that it aided women in labor.

This long list of plants serves to tie me to the Native American tradition in my Great Lakes home area. Many of the plants are suitable for your garden and open new avenues of herbal tradition to explore.

References:

1. Erichsen-Brown, Charlotte. 1979. Medicinal and other uses of North American plants. New York: Dover Publications.

2. Harris, Marjorie. 2003. Botanica North America: the illustrated guide to our native plants, their botany, history, and the way they have shaped our world. New York: Harper Collins.

3. Kamm, Minnie Watson. 1938. Oldtime herbs for northern gardens. Boston: Little Brown.

4. Milwaukee Public Museum. Indian Country Wisconsin. http://www. mpm.edu/wirp/, (accessed July 7, 2010).

5. Reader’s Digest. 1986. Magic and medicine of plants. Pleasantville, NY: Reader’s Digest Association

6. University of Michigan. Native American ethnobotany. http://herb. umd.umich.edu. (accessed July 7, 2010).

Bibliography

City of Green Bay. General History. http://www.ci.green-bay.wi.us/ history/index.html, (accessed July 7, 2010).

A member at large of The Herb Society of America and a member of The Society’s rosemary circle, Jane Knaapen Cole spends half the year in DePere, WI, and, gratefully, the winter half in Mesa, AZ. She continues to present herb programs and helps to plant and tend the herb gardens at the Green Bay Botanical Garden and Historic Hazelwood.

Dock A Useful Weed

By Katherine Montgomery

Rumex obtusifolius, broadleaf dock, is often found in our gardens in unwanted places. Its long taproot makes it devilish to pull and the numerous seeds produced from its flowers ensure that it is almost ever-present. But is it always a foe in the garden? Dock is a perpetual problem for farmers because it competes with other more nutritious grazing plants, but to others, particularly in earlier times, it provided much-needed nutrition, dye, and medicine. Obviously there is more to this common weed than what meets the eye.

Rumex obtusifolius is a member of the Polygonaceae (knotweed) family, which comprises some 200 species of annuals, biennials, and perennials. A number of species within this genus are considered herbal and have been used for medicinal and other purposes over the years. Yellow or broadleaf dock (Rumex obtusifolius) and curly dock (Rumex crispus) are perennials, although their life spans vary from one to five years (10). One of the reasons dock is so successful as an invasive plant is that it has a fleshy taproot that can extend five feet into the ground with side branches as long as three feet (10). This allows the plant to store water and nutrients for a long period of time and to resist

mechanical control methods such as mowing. It also makes it very difficult to hand-pull! Dock is even resistant to flooding; it can survive being submerged for up to eight weeks, even in the dark, due to a dormancy strategy characterized by slower consumption of carbohydrates stored in the taproot (8).

R. obtusifolius and R. crispus are native to Europe, but have naturalized and grow nearly everywhere—from north of the Arctic Circle in Norway, to Hawaii, New Zealand, Australia, South America, and Japan (6).

Dock flowers in early to midspring. Some plants will bloom just nine weeks after sprouting

The edges of curly dock (left) leaves are often thinner and more curled than those of broadleaf dock (right). Photo by Ohio State Weed Lab Archive, Ohio State University, Bugwood.org.jpg

from seed; others wait until they are two or three years old. The one to five foot flower spikes emerge from a basal rosette of large leaves. Some of the lower leaves in the rosette may have red stems and the edges of the leaves may be wavy. The edges of curly dock leaves tend to be thinner and more curled than those of broadleaf dock. The nodes where the leaf meets the stem are covered by a thin paper-like sheath characteristic of the Polygonaceae family.

Small, inconspicuous flowers start out as a green color and turn red to rusty brown in autumn. They contain no nectar, relying on the wind for pollination. During flowering, the leaves usually die off, leaving behind stems that bear an abundance of small three-winged fruits, each containing a tiny, triangular, shiny red-brown seed. One plant of curly dock can produce up to 80,000 seeds in one year (6). Long-term studies have shown the seeds to be 83% viable after 20 years and 2% were viable after 80 years (11). The tall stems turn reddish brown and are easily identified in a field even from a speeding car. Most of the seeds drop to the ground near the mother plant, but a number of them will travel long distances, floating in water or clinging to passing animals and birds.

are especially high in beta-carotene and vitamins A and C (7). They are generally boiled in at least one change of water to reduce the bitterness and soften the texture. Sautéing or stir-frying the leaves will do the same thing (7). The flavor of the leaves is a bit lemony; they make a wonderful addition to soups and sauces. The young leaves and stems have a milder taste if harvested in early spring. Seeds can also be harvested and ground into a powder for use as gruel or mixed with cereal flours for

A weed is a plant whose virtues have not yet been discovered. -Ralph Waldo Emerson

making bread (2). They are also high in calcium and fiber (13). Leaves and seeds are rich in the antioxidants myrecetin and quercetin—in significantly higher quantities than in red wine, black tea, and onions, all of which are better known sources (13). Actively planting dock is not recommended because it is considered an invasive weed in 40 countries (10). Fortunately, finding a supply is usually not difficult due to its common presence in pastures and disturbed areas.

(10). Maude Grieve, in her famous Modern Herbal, suggested using dock to relieve the sting of nettle (Urtica dioica) by rubbing the leaves on the affected parts. Grieve mentions that the nettle sting cure was accompanied by the words:

Nettle in, Dock; Dock in, Nettle out; Dock rub Nettle out.

Ironically, dock is often found growing near nettle.

Dock is a plant host for a number of species of insects—some desirable and others not. The larvae of a number of butterfly and moth species, especially the coppers (Lycaena spp.), feed on the leaves of both Rumex obtusifolius and Rumex crispus (9).

Yellow dock and curly dock have not always been considered useless weeds. The leaves can be cooked and eaten, and those of curly dock

In Europe, broadleaf or yellow dock was often called butter plant or butter dock because the large leaves were wrapped around butter to preserve it, especially on the way to market

In earlier times, docks were classified as members of the genus Lapathum, derived from the Greek lapazein, meaning “to cleanse.” These plants were often used medicinally as purgatives. Infusions were made from the leaves for use as diuretics and laxatives. Tinctures were made to ease tickling coughs (5). Because of their astringent quality, leaves were laid on sores or skin abscesses to form a natural compress and draw out fluids (2). Brother Cadfael, the medieval herbalist created by Ellis Peters in her Brother Cadfael Mysteries, “was busy bruising fresh leaves of dock and mandrake in a mortar for a soothing ointment” in The Pilgrim of Hate (12).

Red dock, also known as water dock (Rumex aquaticus), has similar properties to yellow dock, but its rootstock has a blackish or dark brown surface. Dried and ground to a powder, it was used as a tooth cleanser (6). Culpeper refers to this red dock as bloodwort, because it was believed to cleanse the blood and strengthen the liver. Its young leaves were used as a nutritious potherb. He was dismayed “that women will not put it into a pot because it makes the pottage black; pride and ignorance preferring nicety before health.” (3)

The Shakers in America grew yellow dock in large quantities. The roots were dried and ground. Dock was used in their concentrated syrup of sarsaparilla, which was sold as a tonic for a wide variety of ailments. It was also listed in extract form in their 1860 catalog. The Shakers at Enfield, New Hampshire may have grown the largest quantity of dock; in 1889 they sold 44,000 pounds of the dried root to J.C. Ayer and Co. of Lowell, Massachusetts for use in the company’s sarsaparilla. The sale was valued at $22,000 (1).

Dyers also used dock. The colors that are derived from different parts of the plant vary depending on the water

and the mordants used.

Mordants enable the dye molecules to attach to the fiber. The acidity of the water can affect the color of the dye. On wool fiber, the roots are reported to yield brown or black dye when ferrous sulfate is used as the mordant. The size and age of the plant also have an effect on the “blackness” of the color. If the leaves and the whole plant are chopped, they provide a yellow dye when an alum mordant is used and green with a copper mordant. Adding iron produces a darker green. The seeds, after boiling for an extended time, are reported to yield red in varying shades depending on the length of the boiling. If the seeds are very mature, the color produced is closer to brown than red (4).

In the Shetland Islands, where trees and similar basket materials were scarce due to fierce winds from the surrounding oceans and the large number of sheep, dock stems were used to make “kishie” baskets. Stems were held together with a twisted cord made from oat stems or local grasses to form the basket, which was traditionally suspended by a cord that one wore around the shoulders to support the basket on the back.

Perhaps Ralph Waldo Emerson was thinking of dock when he wrote, “What is a weed? A weed is a plant whose virtues have not yet been discovered.” To the farmer trying to raise cattle or the gardener trying

Above: A paper-like sheath is found where the node meets the stem on broadleaf dock (Rumex obtusifolius). Photo from Oregon State University.

Right: The stems of curly dock (Rumex crispus) turn reddish-brown in the fall. Photo by Steve Dewey, Utah State University,bugwood.org

to pull dock from the garden without breaking the taproot, dock is a weed. To the dyer, the butterflies, and those who like to try wild foods, dock’s virtues have already been discovered.

References:

1. Buchanan, Rita. 1996. The Shaker herb and garden book. New York: Houghton Mifflin Co.

2. Coon, Nelson. 1957. Using wayside plants. Watertown, MA: Eaton Press.

3. Culpeper, Nicholas. 1992. Culpeper’s complete herbal. London: Bloomsbury Books.

4. Grierson, Su. 1986. The colour cauldron. Angus, Scotland: Oliver McPherson Ltd.

5. Grieve, Maude and C.F. Leyel, ed. 1931, rev. ed. 1994. A modern herbal. London: Tiger Books International.

6. Invasive Species Specialist Group. Global Invasive Species Database. Rumex obtusifolius. http://www.issg. org/database/species/ecology.asp, (accessed April 8, 2011).

7. Kallas, John. 2010. Edible wild plants: wild foods from dirt to palate. Layton, UT: Gibbs Smith.

8. Laan, P. and C.W.P.M. Blom. 1990. Growth and survival responses of Rumex species to flooded and submerged conditions: the importance of shoot elongation, underwater photosynthesis, and reserve carbohydrates. Journal of Experimental Botany 41(7): 775-783.

9. Natural History Museum. HOSTS-a database of the world’s Lepidopteran hostplants. http://www.nhm.ac.uk/ jdsml/research-curation/research/ projects/hostplants/index.dsml, (accessed April 12, 2011).

10. Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center. Ohio perennial and biennial weed guide. Curly dock: Rumex crispus. http://www. oardc.ohio-state.edu/weedguide/ singlerecord.asp?id=221, (accessed April 8, 2011).

11. Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center. Ohio perennial and biennial weed guide. Broadleaf dock: Rumex obtusifolia. http://www. oardc.ohio-state.edu/weedguide/ singlerecord.asp?id=221, (accessed April 8, 2011).

12. Talbot, Rob, Whiteman, Robin. 1996. Brother Cadfael’s herb garden. Boston: Little Brown and Company.

13. Wiese, B., et al. 1995. Chemical composition of Rumex crispus L. seed. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society (72) 9: 1077-78.

Katherine Montgomery lives on a farm in western Kentucky where she tends a large herb and vegetable garden, makes baskets, and spins wool for knitting and weaving. Katherine received a Certificate of Appreciation from HSA in 2010 and managed the HSA Seed Exchange from 20022009. She is a member of the Pennsylvania Unit of The Herb Society of America.

Inflorescences of broadleaf dock (Rumex obtusifolius). Photo by H. Zell.

by Laura McNerney

Nestled deep in the backwoods of the foothills of the Ozark Mountains is one of the most unusual farms in this area of the country. Hidden among oak and hickory-covered hills are 30 acres of prime creek-bottomland where the only crop being grown is bamboo. “Bamboo Valley” is where, for the past 15 years, I have grown more than 40 different species of bamboo with varying degrees of success. Starting with just one plant, a gift from a friend, I have grown to love bamboo for its beauty and usefulness, although I must caution gardeners that many species can be very invasive—great care must be taken when deciding if and where to plant bamboo since it can take over quickly and be difficult to eradicate. Due to its great versatility bamboo is one of nature’s gifts in our efforts to re-green the Earth. Because of its austere serenity, tremendous strength, food potential, medicinal uses, phenomenal erosion control capabilities, as well as its rapid growth and renewability rates, bamboo is one of nature’s answers to repairing some of the more negative effects of our technological world. It is a model of sustainability.

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Some Facts About Bamboo

Bamboo has been growing for at least 200 to 600 million years. The Poaceae family includes approximately 80 different genera and 1,500 to 2,000 different species (1). Bamboo’s natural habitat is mostly throughout the tropical and temperate belts of the world. It grows mainly in two different forms, categorized by growth habit. Clumping bamboo, also called sympodial bamboo by botanists, grows mostly in tropical areas and tends to grow in large singular stands increasing in a circular diameter. It is generally considered to be slower growing and less invasive, especially compared to its more aggressive and rapidly spreading cousin, “running bamboo.”

Running bamboo or monopodial bamboo does occur sub-tropically, but is more temperate in distribution (most species being hardy to nearly zero degrees Fahrenheit). It tends to spread rapidly and the size of the grove increases very quickly. Scientists believe that running bamboo appeared first and that clumping bamboo evolved from it (1).

Bamboos are among the most adaptable groups of plants on the planet. They are found growing

naturally in a wide variety of environments, from hot tropical rainforests to high mountain passes and from lowland river valleys to cold windswept islands. Many readily adapt to environments varying widely in light, soil, and moisture conditions. However, most bamboos do not grow well near the ocean, as they do not like salty air, ground, or water.

Culms and Sheaths

Culm is the botanical term used for the woody pole of the bamboo plant. The sheath is the outer coating of the shoot or immature culm when it emerges from the ground. The sheath is papery, like a corn shuck, and has differing colors and patterns depending on the individual species of bamboo. Identifying different bamboo species within a genus is quite difficult, even for plant taxonomists. Identification is usually accomplished by looking at the sheath markings when the shoots emerge and at the branching habit of the culms. In many cases, the final determination must be made in a tissue and genome identification laboratory.

The Bloom Cycle of Bamboo

One of the mysterious attributes of bamboo is its blooming cycle. Some species may bloom every year with

little to no harm to the grove, while others bloom once every 50-100 years with total die-off following bloom and seed bearing. Except for a few members of desert plants or agave groups, no other plants on earth seem to exhibit this peculiar timing cycle for bloom and die-off.

Bamboo is a grass, producing ears of seeds that look similar to rice in structure and nutrient content. There does not seem to be any environmental stress factor triggering bloom, but it seems rather to be a response to some sort of cellular, genetic time-clock. The same species planet-wide, coming from the same generation of seed, bloom and die-off simultaneously wherever they happen to be planted (1).

In Asia, the massive bloom of large fertile groves has led to the relief of famine for short time periods in history, but also to the explosion of the rat population, which decimated crops and brought on outbreaks of the plague. In Brazil, India, and China, blooming bamboo has saved thousands from famine caused by drought. It has been thought that drought might be responsible for initiating the bloom period, but this has not been dependably observed. In contrast, the blooming and die-off of

Sheaths are the outercoating of the shoots or immature culms of bamboo plants. Photo by Susan Varno

Immature culm (woody pole) covered by the sheath with its identifying markings. Photo by Susan Varno

A new bamboo shoot emerging from the ground. Photo by Susan Varno

Fargesia nitida (the bamboo pandas eat) a few years ago endangered panda populations throughout China.

Bamboo is not thought of as a staple food because it blooms so rarely. However, on the occasion when it does bloom in the larger groves of its native lands, it supplies large quantities of highly nutritious grain. Although the seed of different bamboo species may vary somewhat in nutritional content, bamboo grain is thought to be comparably rich across the board. “An analysis of the seed or grain of Bambusa tulda showed: water (13.5 percent), protein (10.8 percent), starch (71.6 percent), oil (0.6 percent), fiber (2.1percent) and ash (1.4 percent) (1).”

Running bamboo shoots emerge once a year in the spring. For food harvest, shoots (or sprouts as they are sometimes called) should have soil gently heaped up over them just as they crest the ground or be covered with a bucket or box to blanch them (as with endive) until they are a few inches tall. Shoots are cut from the rhizome just below the soil line. Letting the shoots green-up makes them tough and fibrous. Tough outer sheath material can be removed, leaving the soft, crunchy interior part of the shoot.

At Bamboo Valley the fresh shoots of Phyllostachys aureosulcata, harvested in late April, have a wonderful flavor and texture and are nothing like the canned version. Naturally low in carbohydrates and fat, the shoots add crunch to salads and stews and raise the insoluble fiber levels of stir-fry dishes. Tea and pickles can be made from bamboo shoots.

Some of the more acrid-tasting species can be pre-boiled one or more times to leach out any bitter taste before use; however, most types are delicious right

from the ground. On rare occasions some tropical bamboos have been seen to weep “bamboo manna,” a sweet, gummy sugar, in large amounts. Composed of nearly 75% glucose, bamboo manna forms stalactite candy sticks down the culms (1).

Bamboo beer is made from the sap of the bamboo cane. Bamboo vinegar is made from the sap of the culm and is used as a culinary ingredient and as a medicinal ingredient used to flush toxins out of the body.

Roasting various foods in bamboo canes can impart an unusual and delicious flavor to them. Bamboo has been used in Korea to make the famous nine times roasted salt, which is commonly used in that country for both culinary and therapeutic purposes.

Bamboo Used as Herbal Medicine

Various parts of the bamboo plant have been used as medicine in India and China for thousands of years. The leaves, liquid sap, shavings from the culm, and the dried crystallized resin from within the culm, all have been used to make medicines. In the Ayurvedic medicine system, bamboo powder is taken for longevity and rejuvenation. Traditional Chinese medicine also uses bamboo for its ability to reduce fevers and for congestion.

Tabasheer, or the “bamboo opal,” is little known in the West but it is highly regarded for its medicinal properties in China. Bamboo is the only plant on earth that is known to form a true crystallized mineral within its structure (1). Tabasheer is the silicated, crystallized sap of bamboo that is secreted within the internodes of the culm. Chemically and optically it is very similar to a true geo-opal, but

Approximate Nutritional Analysis Per 100 grams of fresh bamboo shoots (May vary by species)

Crude protein - 2.5 g.

Crude fat - 1.2g.

Carbohydrates/sugar - 2.9g

Crude fiber - 1.0g

Water - 92.5%

Calories - 23

P - 43mg.

Vitamins

A - 50 iu

B1 - 0.10mg.

B2 - 0.08mg.

C - 10 mg.

Source: Farrelly, David, 1984. The book of bamboo. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books.

contains greater amounts of water and less alkali. Tabasheer has been used as a love potion and a poison antidote. Coughs and asthma have also been treated with it.

Here at Home

Three taxa of bamboos are native to North America: river cane (Arundinaria gigantea), hill cane (A. appalachiana), and switch cane (A. gigantea ssp. tecta). Widespread stands of bamboo existed on the rivers and waterways of the United States during the time of Lewis and Clark, but only a fraction of them remain today.

Of the three taxa native to North America, people from the southeastern part of the United States are the most familiar with river cane, Arundinaria gigantea, because it is considered a nuisance weed in cattle pastures, creek beds, and fields.

Caution: Running bamboos take work to contain and control them when that is an issue. They will need preinstalled rhizome barriers before planting for the best and most controllable results. Yearly inspections must be done to look for breakouts and rhizomes. Bamboos can be planted in containers or used for bonsai for those with limited space.

Recommended Bamboo Cultivars

Home Gardeners with Small Spaces

Sasa palmata or Indocalamus tessellatus

Medium Size Bamboos

Pseudosasa japonica - although these can get somewhat larger with room to grow

Chimonobambusa marmorea and C. quadrangularis - Requires at least half a day in the sun and/or bright shade; even moisture; fertile soils; and shelter from the wind, especially in the cold winter and subfreezing nights

Larger Bamboo

Phyllostachys aureosulcata - a dependable bamboo that reaches full maturity at around 15 years; highly expansive and aggressive though, as is true with most of the Phyllostachys group; tops out at around 45 feet with 1.5-inch culms

Phyllostachys nigra var. nigra - very slow to mature, finally reaching mature height almost 17 years after initial planting and not developing the characteristic black mottling on culms until nearly the 15 year mark; seems much less aggressive than P. aureosulcata and perhaps more easily controlled

Phyllostachys nigra var. henonis - giant grey timber bamboo that has a relatively large culm girth to height ratio, making it more decorative in the garden; grows slower than P. aureosulcata but reaches a mature state much faster, around 5 years; not too difficult to control and seems really hardy

Phyllostachys sulphurea var. viridis - has decorative yellow culms with variegated leaves; slower growing with best girth to height to culm ratio; easily controlled when maintained, with a striking appearance for garden features; spreads quite well if left uncontrolled

Phyllostachys aureosulcata ‘Spectabilis’- a really gorgeous large bamboo with all the vigor of a true aureosulcata; establishes quickly and matures quickly; spreads rapidly and is aggressive; culms are striped green and yellow with white and green variegated leaves, making it a truly striking cultivar

Phyllostachys nigra - one of the slowest growing and slowest to mature species; susceptible to freezing and tends to die back to an immature stage easily; it does not get the true black culms until reaching maturity; good choice for those with control issues

In the past, many Native American groups considered river cane to be one of the most useful plants available. They used it to make blowguns, arrow shafts, medicines, fish traps, temporary fences, plant stakes, baskets, and drills. River cane was also used for building mud daub structures and numerous other everyday items.

Rocky hillsides, dry summers, and cold winters are a challenge for most plants and gardeners in Arkansas. Non-native bamboo has not been cultivated very much here and little is known about how well it might grow. Experiments in Bamboo Valley over the past 15 years have shown that some bamboos are uniquely suited for growing in the north and central part of the state. Of the 46 different species I have planted, most have survived. A few have grown well, matching the size and vigor of those in their native habitats.

The first Asian bamboo I cultivated in Bamboo Valley was a gift from a friend. It adapted quickly to its site by the creek bed in the bottomland. Gradually, I added other species to make up the 46 different species grown there today. Due to the rich alluvial soil in that area, some of the bamboo species rapidly shot up and out, quickly maturing and topping out at nearly 40 feet in height and two inches in diameter. Bamboo tolerates

Osage-style cane and mud daub lodge. Photo by Tina Marie Wilcox, Ozark Folk Center State Park

almost any kind of soil and is equally at home in full sun and partial shade, but it will do better and grow faster in moderately moist conditions than it will in dry areas. True bamboo is not a water plant however, and does not like its roots standing in water for periods of more than two days. Note: A large number of species can grow in the United States, ranging in height from six inches (dwarf bamboos) to 60 feet (timber bamboos).

The bottomland in the valley floods almost every year and often erodes badly. One reason for planting bamboo there was as an attempt to control the erosion problem. Bamboo has proven itself wonderfully in holding its ground, even against the relentless forces of yearly floodwaters. It seems to love the flood stage condition and grows twice as fast during years of flooding.

In the winter months when everything else is brown, bamboo remains evergreen and is quite beautiful. In January of 2010, temperatures reached a record low of minus eight degrees Fahrenheit, with 30 miles per hour winds. Most of the bamboos came through with no noticeable damage

or just slight burning of the leaf tips. Bamboo is amazingly resilient. During the last severe ice storm, in 2009, the individual culms in my groves literally laid down on the ground under the weight of the ice and sprang back up to full height within two days of the last melt-off.

In most cases, running bamboos are easy to grow and beautiful in the garden, but they take a few years to get established. Full growth size for the larger varieties is usually not attained before the ten-year mark. Of the clumping (sympodial) varieties I have tried outdoors in USDA Zone 6b-7, none have been successful, due mostly to their late shooting habit (Sept-Oct). They do survive our cold temperatures, but rarely, if ever, reach full size and splendor. I have found, however, that most clumping bamboos make wonderful potted specimen plants.

Planting Your Own Bamboo

Bamboo germinates readily from seed, which retains viability for about three months or more in cold storage. However, for true varieties without question of possible unwanted hybridization, bamboo is best

transplanted in the late fall or early spring, from well established root divisions. For the best results, bareroot rhizomes should be planted in pots and established to the point of developing new growth before being planted in the ground. Rhizomes should never be allowed to dry out during transplanting. Bamboo should be planted within the first 12 inches of the soil and not much deeper.

A one or two-inch covering layer of soil—just enough to cover the rhizome clump—is usually enough. Good mulching helps to keep new plantings moist. Fertilizer or manure should never be added directly to the transplant hole. Feeding should only be done after the plant is well established. Bamboo prefers a welldrained soil high in organic matter, but it will also grow in slightly sandy soils. The plant grows well in full sun to partial shade, in areas protected from wind.

Bamboo Takes Serious Planning!

Be warned, bamboo is aggressive. Running types can become extremely invasive and difficult to control with large woody rhizomes and

Table 1 - Growth rates of a portion of the bamboo species found in the test gardens at Bamboo Valley.

culms that require a saw to cut. Not many herbicides available to the home gardener work effectively in eliminating bamboo once it gets established.

In the Orient, the most effective way of controlling bamboo is harvesting it for food. If harvesting isn’t enough, spring sprouting time is the best time to cut (or kick) the sprouts so that they cannot grow. However, the rhizomes will still continue to spread out beneath the ground a great distance from the edge of the grove. Digging the rhizomes while they are still forming and are still partially soft in the late winter is a good way of containing the grove. Vigilance and diligence are required to control bamboo.

The best way to contain it is by installing two-to-three-foot deep rhizome barriers (either plastic or metal) in trenches surrounding the planting area. These should be placed vertically in the ground and be backfilled while leaving four inches of the barrier above the ground. Even with this method, make sure to watch the edges of the barrier for any signs of bamboo leaking through. Natural containment features such as rock cliffs and creek beds can work well as barriers to contain growth, but for those landscapes where no such natural features exist, subterranean rhizome barriers put in place before planting are by far the best method.

Loving Bamboo

There are a number of other wonderful advantages to adding bamboo to your landscape. Bamboo makes a terrific privacy fence due to its speed, size, and thickness of growth, as well as providing yearround foliar beauty. The diverse growth characteristics of the different

species give the gardener a wide selection of leaf, culm size, and color. Poles are harvested from the groves every year and may be used for making flutes, fences, screens, and various other craft projects. A quality variety of paper is made from bamboo that can meet or exceed the quality of paper produced from wood pulp (1). Flooring and rayon fiber products are also made from bamboo.

Bamboo grows more rapidly than other land plants. In Bamboo Valley I have seen it grow 18 to 24 inches in one 24-hour period. As author David Farrelly states in The Book of Bamboo, “Bamboo, under optimum conditions, can provide two to six times as much cellulose per acre as pine forests

in general and can increase 2 to 5 percent yearly in total bulk or biomass with groves of bamboo increasing 10 to 30 percent per year.” (1)

Bamboo acts as a wonderful habitat in both summer and especially in winter for native animals such as turkey and deer. Groves produce deep shade that creates a cool, almost otherworldly serenity. A bamboo grove is a truly wonderful place to go and ponder life while taking a break from the busy world outside.

Bamboo groves provide deep, cooling shade in the summer. Photo by Susan Varno

References

Grateful acknowledgement to Susan Varno for her photos and to Tina Marie Wilcox of the Ozark Folk Center State Park, Mountain View Arkansas for the picture of “Osage style cane and mud daub lodge.”

Laura McNerney is a member of The Herb Society of America Ozark Unit. She has lived in Arkansas at “Bamboo Valley” since 1989 and is a herbalist, bonsai artist, organic gardener, and fine arts artist. Bamboo Valley is her 30-acre experimental farm in the deep wilderness of the Ozark Foothills, where she collects bamboos and works on re-naturalizing endangered plant species of the Ozark Mountains.

For information on growing bamboo in the Ozarks or to visit Bamboo Valley please contact manideva2003@yahoo.com

1. Farrelly, David. 1984. The book of bamboo. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books.

Bamboo foliage provides habitat for native wildlife, such as deer and turkey . Photo by Susan Varno

by Sue Winderweedle

We often know plants by their flowers, leaves, fragrances, textures, and sometimes by their roots. What we don’t usually experience is the actual essence of the plant, the components that make it useful for medicine, cosmetics, or perfume. We may experience hints of this essence when we inhale a plant’s unique scent while cooking with it or when we brush up against it in the garden. However, these are the outward manifestations of the plant’s internal chemistry. The actual essence of the plant is its essential oil, containing the chemicals that give the plant its characteristic fragrance and flavor, as well as other properties. This is the plant in its purest form, the essential part that makes it unique.

What Are Essential Oils?

The term “essential oil” is vague and can lead to confusion. For example, the term “essential” has two very different meanings according to the Merriam-Webster dictionary; “of or relating to or constituting essence: inherent” or “of utmost importance.” For the purposes of this article, an “essential oil” will be defined as a concentrated, hydrophobic (repels from water) liquid that contains the aromatic chemical compounds of a plant and that is commonly used for perfumes, flavorings, and aromatherapy. In a superficial sense the oil contains the “essence” or the inherent, distinctive fragrance of the plant that it is taken from, thus the term “essential.” Essential oils can be made up of just one or two main chemical compounds, but more often they are quite complex and contain dozens or even hundreds. Roots, flowers, leaves, stems, seeds, and bark all yield essential oils that are used as medicine or perfume—even as

substances to influence the feelings of others, such as in aromatherapy. Some classic feel-good essential oils, sometimes referred to as aphrodisiacs, are patchouli, sandalwood, rose, rosewood, jasmine, and citrus. Essential oils are also referred to as “volatile oils” or “ethereal oils.” They evaporate when exposed to the air, releasing their aroma and properties. For greatest freshness, they are best stored in dark glass bottles and kept in a cool, dark place.

Distillation

Essential oils used for therapeutic use are normally obtained by one of three methods. Steam distillation separates the plant juice into two layers: hydrosol (the water remaining from the evaporation process), and the essential oil that floats on top of the hydrosol. Every source I have studied regarding steam distillation suggests that the process is more successful with plants harvested in the early morning hours, after the dew has evaporated, because the essential oil content is at its peak just at daybreak.

The second process is called CO₂ distillation and it takes place in a laboratory. The essential oils are separated from other plant components through the use of chemical solvents. The solvents are then removed, leaving behind pure essential oil. The third and oldest process, cold pressing, uses high pressure to extract the oil. Each of these methods utilizes some degree of heat to obtain the final product which can change the oil in various ways. My greatest concern when I purchase an essential oil is that it smells the same to me every time. Consistency is an important quality in superior goods.

Depending upon the plant, extracting the “essential oil” can be an expensive

and time-consuming process. For example, in my early studies I learned that lavender essential oil requires 100 pounds of lavender buds (Lavandula angustifolia subsp. angustifolia) to produce one pound of pure French lavender essential oil, which today costs about $100 per 16 ounces wholesale (3). To distill one pound of pure rose oil, sometimes called attar of rose or rose otto, requires as many as 8,000 pounds of rose petals (Rosa ×damascena) and costs approximately $5,300 per 16 ounces at market for professional use (7). Lavender and rose oils are considered “precious” essential oils because of their high production cost (3).

Safety and Cautions

Be well informed about the oils you plan to use and take great care when handling the pure oils. It is vitally important to consult your medical providers regarding the safe use of essential oils during pregnancy. Also, be advised that some essential oils can cause allergic reactions. We need to treat essential oils with the respect they deserve. At their best they are beneficial natural products; misused, they can cause harm or lead to health problems.

Medical professionals, aromatherapists, and other users of essential oils often give conflicting advice with regard to using essential oils “neat” (without dilution) on the skin. Therefore, a good practice is to avoid using any essential oils “neat” externally or internally. In order to be safe, pure essential oils must be diluted in a carrier oil, such as grapeseed oil, for appropriate use on the body. Pour one ounce of carrier oil into a glass container, add 5-20 drops of essential oil, cover, and gently roll the jar between the hands to blend. This ratio is generally considered

What good are essential oils?

Essential Oil Blends Well With: Aromatherapy Benefits

Bergamot (Citrus bergamia)

Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum)

Clary Sage (Salvia sclarea)

Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus)

Ginger (Zingiber officinale)

Jasmine (Jasminum grandiflorum)

Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia subsp. angustifolia)

Lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexuosus), there is also C. citratus, which is more relevant for cooking

Palmarosa (Cymbopogon martini)

Patchouli (Pogostemon cablin)

Peppermint (Mentha ×piperita)

Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis)

Rosewood (Aniba rosaeodora)

Sandalwood (Santalum spicatum)

Spearmint (Mentha spicata)

Source: http://www.auracacia.com/ (1)

safe for aromatherapy purposes or to wear as perfume (8). Symptoms of a reaction to essential oils can be a rash, blisters, dryness, cracking, and itching. Should these symptoms occur, gently wash the area with mild soap and lukewarm water and pat gently to dry (10). If these symptoms or a burning sensation persist, take the offending product along with its labeling with you to seek medical attention (10).

Advice on whether or not essential oils can be taken internally is also

Coriander, cypress, geranium, lavender, jasmine, roman chamomille, neroli

Bergamot, frankincense, ylang-ylang, cedarwood, coriander

Coriander, cardamom, citrus oils, sandalwood, cedarwood, geranium, lavender

Citrus, mints

Spice and citrus oils

Nearly every essential oil, widely used in perfume industry, very strong aroma

Citrus, clove, patchouli, rosemary, clary sage, pine

Citrus and lavender

Lavender, rose, rosewood, sandalwood

Spicy and citrus oils; described as earthy, sweet, balsamic, woody and spicy, has a rich heady aroma

Sweet, earthy, or citrus essentials; powerful menthol aroma

Citrus, woody, and spicy oils

Lavender and palmarosa; has a sweetwoody, floral-nutmeg fragrance

Rose, lavender, neroli, and bergamot; sweet-woody, warm aroma

Other mints or eucalyptus to sweeten, citrus oils; a fresh, clean aroma

confusing and at times downright dangerous. Please investigate this practice carefully and discuss it with your health care provider, even if the proponent seems professional and insists on the benefits of doing so (6). The majority of holistic practitioners, as well as traditional Western medical care providers do not recommend internal use of essential oils for any reason (6). Just because it is “natural” doesn’t mean it is healthy for you!

Uplifting, inspiring, confidencebuilding

Warming, comforting, alluring

Centering, euphoric, visualizing, fixative: increases aroma’s life

Purifying, invigorating, helps to relieve pain and congestion

Warming, strengthening, grounding

Calming, relaxing, sensual, romantic

Balancing, soothing, normalizing, calming, relaxing, healing

Revitalizing, cleansing, excellent bug repellent

Cleansing, astringent, excellent for skin care

Romantic, soothing, sensual, aphrodisiac, very intense when used by itself, fixative: increases aroma’s life, improves with age

Refreshing, revitalizing, cooling, source of menthol

Clarifying, invigorating

Gently strengthening, calming

Relaxing, centering, sensual, aphrodisiac

Refreshing, cooling, revitalizing

As a professional soap maker and self-trained herbalist and perfumer, I have learned from many sources that certain essential oils are not commonly used because they are known to be toxic or have carcinogenic and abortifacient (cause abortion) properties. Also, many herbal oils are known skin irritants (4). Due to their different immune systems, the very young, the elderly, those with certain illnesses, and pets, can all be susceptible to certain essential oils in ways that are

harmful to them. Keep in mind that essential oil quality can vary greatly. For example, in order to extend their fragrance, some rose oils are diluted, without the customer’s knowledge, by as much as 90% with palmarosa (Cymbopogon martini) oil because it is a relatively inexpensive substitute (5). Adulterated or impure oils can cause problems both in terms of performance and finances.

My best advice when searching for products or information on the Internet is to research your topic or desired product on different search engines and through various types of sources, then use your own life experience and wisdom in identifying true versus biased or sales-based information. Investigate the reputation of the supplier if possible before investing your hard-earned money in costly oils. Standardization of essential oils and related products may become the norm in our future, but for now we must be cautious; better to be safe than sorry.

One additional note of caution: some articles on fragrance blending suggest using vodka or grain alcohol (ethyl alcohol) as a base for perfumes.

This practice is illegal in the United States (9). Please research your work carefully in order to provide the finest and safest applications possible. Search for “perfumer’s alcohol” or “SD40 Alcohol” if you decide to create perfume.

Blending Fragrances

I use a special method to create specific fragrances that are unique to me. When I develop a new fragrance I consider what “flavor” I want to create. Do I want my blend to have a floral, woodsy, spicy, or clean smell?

I also think realistically about how much time I have available. Do I have one day (not enough time) or as much as two weeks (just right for me) to work on this project? The answers to these questions give me the timeframe and direction that I need for my project. The process I describe below is only for creating a new fragrance; once that is accomplished you have to re-create the fragrance blend in quantity for use in a product.

I start by taking stock of the essential oils I have on hand and assembling the clean tools that I will need to work: a glass cup or bowl with a tight cover; a professional scale that weighs by grams or tenths of ounces; a wire whisk; and metal measuring spoons. Safety gear such as gloves and protective eyewear must be worn when working with essential oils. For beginners, a good starting point includes safety gear, several favorite essential oils, cotton swabs, and a glass jar with a tight plastic lid or a sealable plastic bag (Figure 1, p. 46).

A notebook is handy for recording the ratios of the combinations that are created. For example, I use a blend of three essential oils for my finished Patchouli Passion product: patchouli, allspice, and sweet orange. The blend is recorded as a 1:3:5 ratio (patchouli:

Resources:

A wonderful source for beginners is http://wholesalesuppliesplus. com, which offers great how-to demonstrations, recipes, superior products, and great customer service.

More in-depth information about distillation methods may be found at http://www.naturesgift.com/ extraction.htm.

To learn more about the components of plants found in essential oils, see http://www. pureessentialoils.com/essential_ oils_components.php

allspice: sweet orange), or in other words 1 part patchouli to 3 parts allspice to 5 parts sweet orange. I record all of this for future reference.

While blending, correct labeling is important to avoid confusion and mistakes. If the blend is made of pure essential oils without a carrier, label the jar as such along with the date created. If diluted, note the ratio of essential oils to carrier oil used and the date blended. For me, the entire process of creating blends for my products is an intuitive art, others will approach this process more scientifically.

Creating your own “signature” fragrance

Start with one cotton swab per essential oil—you can cut them in half if they are double-ended (Figure 2, p. 46). Dip one end of the swab into Essential Oil A, rolling off excess oil on the edge of the jar so proportions remain consistent and no oil is lost (Figure 3, p. 46). Drop the swab into a zippered baggie (Figure 4, p. 46). Repeat with one clean swab for

Essential Oil B. Document the essential oils you use along with their ratios for future reference (Figure 5); at this point the ratio is 1:1 (Essential A: Essential B). If you decide to strengthen one particular aroma, add additional uncontaminated swabs dipped in that essential oil and record the change in your ratio. For instance, in the previous example, if you add two more swabs of Essential Oil A your ratio would be 3:1 (three parts Essential oil A to one part Essential oil B). When you are satisfied that you are close to your fragrance goal, seal the baggie tightly and store it in a cool, dark place. Return the next day and gently open the plastic bag, then fan your hand over the top of the bag to help the fragrance gently drift toward you (Figure 6). Concentrate on your reaction to the aroma and record your response in your notes. Leave the baggie open and allow it to rest undisturbed for two hours, then return to wave the baggie near your nose again. Has the fragrance changed? Has it settled into the fragrance you originally wanted to create, or do you need to tweak it to move the fragrance closer to your goal? If you decide to make adjustments to your blend be sure to record the new ratio and the date you updated it.

As you work you may realize that you have reached your fragrance goal and decide to stop. A second option is to use your original blend to make another new scent. If you decide to take this route, my advice would be to preserve the original fragrance baggie with its swabs inside, along with your updated notes. Label your first experiment with masking tape marked with the essential oils used, the ratio, and the date, then begin anew using a

Figure 3 - Roll excess oil off on the edge of the jar so proportions remain consistent and no oil is lost.

Figure 4 - Drop swabs that have been dipped into essential oil into a zippered baggie.

Figure 5 -Label baggies with essential oils used and their ratios, along with the date.

Figure 6 - Wave the baggie near your nose to help the fragrance drift toward you. Concentrate on your reactions to the aroma.

Figure 1 - A few of the supplies needed for creating fragrances.

Figure 2 - Double-ended q-tips can be cut in half to extend their use.

Photos by Regina Casey, Marietta, GA

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 4

Figure 5

Figure 3

Figure 6

clean baggie. Re-create the original fragrance using the ratio that you previously recorded and then add more essential oil swabs as you did with your first fragrance. Experiment until you find a new fragrance that is pleasing to you, remembering to write down your new ratio and any new essential oils that you used.

If you arrive at a point where the fragrance is muddy and your nose can’t smell clearly any longer, try smelling coffee beans to help cleanse your scent receptors. Seal the test baggie and leave it until the mood strikes you to work on it again. The entire process of mixing essential oils to make fragrances is meant to be enjoyable and relaxing so there is no reason to rush, this is a time for experimentation and discovery. Later, you will re-create your blends to scent items such as candles, lotions, and liquid soap.

A hint from the voice of experience: when you add your finished essential oil blends to an unscented product, for example a lotion, add drop by drop, sniffing as you go. Essential oils are very aromatic, and a little goes a long way! Aroma can also become a little stronger as it ages in the product.

I have found that I prefer my own finished blends to others’ fragrances; part of that preference is the pride I feel in focusing my sense of smell to create my own unique products that others can enjoy. When I was a little girl I used to play in the bathtub and line up little plastic cups of bath water, adding a drop of this and two of that, pretending to be a magician mixing up a fragrant bath brew. I began working with herbs and oils at 40 years of age and now it is “essentially” what I do for a living! When they are used safely, essential oils can play an important part in your life as well.

References

1. AuraCacia. Essential oil directory. http://www.auracacia.com/ auracacia/aclearn/ar_directory. html (accessed April 26, 2011).

2. Clark, Marge. 2008. Essential Oils and Aromatics. Sandy, Utah: Silverleaf Press.

3. Essential Oil University. http:// essentialoils.org/about/. (accessed April 26, 2011).

4. Gaia’s Garden. Health Issues and Warnings: when not to use herbs and oils. http://www.gaiasgarden.co.uk/herbs/HealthIssues. html (accessed April 26, 2011).

5. Holistic Online.com. Hazardous essential oils. http:// www.holisticonline.com/ Aromatherapy/aroma_ess-oilshazardous.htm (accessed April 26).

6. National Association for Holistic Aromatherapy. NAHA policy statement: raindrop therapy. http://www.naha.org/rdt_ statement.htm (Accessed April 26, 2011).

7. Quinessence Aromatherapy. Bulgarian rose otto. http://www. quinessence.com/bulgarian_ rose_oil.htm. (Accessed April 26, 2011).

8. Skin Care Recipes and Remedies. Carrier Oils – their properties and usage in diluting the pure essential oils. http://www.skincare-recipes-and-remedies.com/ carrier-oils.html (Accessed April 26, 2011).

9. Snowdriftfarm.com. Alcohols for perfumery and preservation. http://www.snowdriftfarm.com/ perfume.html (Accessed April 26, 2011).

10. WebMD. Aromatherapy (essential oils therapy) topic overview. http://www.webmd.com/ balance/stress-management/ tc/aromatherapy-essential-oilstherapy-topic-overview?ecd=wnl_ emw_081810 (Accessed April 26, 2011).

Bibliography

Fisher, David. About.com. Create your own scent blends for soap and candles. http://candleandsoap.about.com/ od/fragrancesandaromatherapy/ht/ htcustblend.htm

(Accessed April 26, 2011).

Sue Winderweedle is a member of the Chattahoochee Unit of The Herb Society of America. In 2000, she began her first company, Southern Appalachian Soap Co, which was located in the north Georgia mountains. She now manufactures her own products and is certified as a Reiki Master practitioner. Sue has created an all-new line of natural skin care products that are “Crueltyfree, Naturally!” You may reach her through her website, www. WiseWomanGifts.com, or call her at 706.669.1571.

Herbal Trees Changed the

by Christine Moore

That Have World

To many people in the Western world, the term “herb” conjures up images of leafy plants such as parsley and oregano. Certainly, many of the popular herbs are herbaceous in nature, but there is a whole spectrum of trees that can be aptly named “herb.” They originate from all over the world and influence everything from the food we eat to the currencies we use. Herbal trees deserve greater awareness for their many contributions to human cultures around the globe.

The National Herb Garden at The United States National Arboretum, defines an “herb” as any plant that is useful to people, excluding those used solely for food, lumber, or beauty. Admittedly, this is a rather broad definition, but it demonstrates how powerfully important plants are in people’s everyday lives. If you look closely at your lifestyle, herbal plants present themselves in a myriad of ways. Products containing lavender, thyme, or echinacea are readily identifiable because they tend to be the most publicized; however, tree products regularly go unnoticed. Often, a tree’s useful components are masked by difficult-to-pronounce chemical names, or perhaps the tree’s manufactured product is disassociated

from its original source, leaving it unrecognized in a list of ingredients.

Gum-arabic Tree

Frequent readers of nutrition labels will undoubtedly come across the term “gum-arabic.” While there’s not much in the name that would lead you to believe it comes from a plant at all, a little research reveals that gum-arabic is a resin derived from Acacia senegal, a tree native to tropical Africa and Asia. Gum-arabic acts as an emulsifier, which keeps ingredients suspended in liquid and delivers a smoother texture in many products. It can be found in glue, soft drink syrups, medicines, ice cream, newspaper ink, and watercolor paints (4). Especially important for some beverage connoisseurs, gum-arabic is what creates the “lace curtain” effect in beer foam. It is such a ubiquitous ingredient in prepared products—products used around the world—that it is almost impossible to name them all.

Coffee

More familiar to most is coffee (Coffea spp. ), which is one of the top three most consumed beverages in the world along with water and tea (Camellia sinensis). Given our insatiable desire for this beverage, revealed by the sheer number of coffee shops around the globe, there

can be no question about the value we place on this tree’s contributions to our lives. In fact, annual world coffee consumption reached a staggering 1.7 billion pounds in 2007 (2). In the financial sector, coffee is one of the most important commodities in terms of value traded annually on the international market, and “is critically important to millions of rural households throughout the world. It is the primary source of income for an estimated 25 million small coffee farm[s] in more than 50 countries” (5). This tree demonstrates how even small changes in the global market can have significant impacts on businesses both large and small.

While most people consume coffee beverages for the proverbial caffeine “buzz,” caffeine alone (removed from “decaffeinated” coffee and tea) is a specialty market. Each year, more than 2 million pounds of caffeine is produced in the decaffeination process in the United States alone. Another two million pounds per year are imported, three-quarters of which is used as an additive in soft drinks; the remainder is added to cold and headache medicines.

Trees for Medicine and Technology

While many tree products enter our lives through our food supply, there are others that have impacted our world in incredible ways through advances in medicine and technology. Prior to the development of synthetic pharmaceutical counterparts, two medicines—obtained from trees living a world apart—played critical roles in minimizing the effects of two devastating health diseases.

Chaulmoogra Tree

Chaulmoogra oil, which comes from the seeds of Hydnocarpus anthelminthicus (chaulmoogra), was the only treatment for Hansen’s disease (leprosy) until the creation of sulfone drugs in 1946. The oil was first described thousands of years ago in ancient Indian texts called the Vedas. Although Chaulmoogra had been used in the East for some time, the tree-based treatment for leprosy was not available until the twentieth century after

Joseph Rock introduced the seeds to the West. Rock, a self-taught botanist who worked for the Smithsonian Institution, United States Department of Agriculture, and the Arnold Arboretum, traveled thousands of miles via primitive conveyances in search of chaulmoogra. He found the fruiting trees in Burma (Myanmar) primarily by using linguistic clues from local people. He collected seeds that were eventually grown in Hawaii for cultivation and drug development (15). Time magazine reported in a March 19, 1928 article that, after several years of study, chaulmoogra oil was found to have “a 100% efficacy [treatment rate] in the early stages of [Hansen’s disease] and 30% in the advanced stages.” Although Hansen’s is now treated with synthetic medicines, H. anthelminthicus brought the first chance for survival to people suffering from this disfiguring disease.

Flower of the ylang-ylang tree (Cananga odorata), sometimes called the Chanel No. 5 tree. Photo by Christine Moore

Cinchona Tree

The cinchona tree (Cinchona officinalis), from which quinine is extracted, is probably one of the most important medicinal trees to date. Native to the high altitudes of the Andes Mountains and the surrounding vicinity (11), cinchona bark was the original treatment for malaria prior to the development of synthetic quinine and its pharmaceutical cousins. Malaria, it is estimated, has killed more people than all of the world wars and plagues combined, including the bubonic plague. In a Washington Post article on 12 July, 2004, Enriqueta Bond stated that malaria claims more than one million victims annually.

Prior to the seventeenth century, there was no way of treating malaria in western society. Jesuit monks learned about cinchona’s efficacy in treating the disease from indigenous peoples who steeped pieces of the bark in water. They brought this valuable information to Europe, but because of religious/political feuding many Europeans wouldn’t try the medicinal infusion (19). The Dutch eventually grew their

cinchona on the island of Java and set up a very profitable production there. Quinine production continued in Java until World War II, at which time a synthetic version of quinine was developed. Unfortunately, the microorganism that causes malaria is becoming resistant to synthetic versions of quinine. Thus, a shift back toward natural remedies is taking place. An example of this is the use of cinchona bark and sweet annie (Artemisia annua), which contain active compounds similar to cinchona. The existence of important phytochemicals in diverse plant species should be an important reminder of the value of biodiversity in the environment.

Trees for Psychology

Just as herbal trees have significantly improved our health through medicine, they also have influenced the more elusive side of human existence—our psyche. Most cultures in the world have exploited plant essences in one form or another either for pleasure or financial gain. Given a perfume or cologne’s incredible power to stir one’s passions and emotions,

Because trade in sandalwood is officially restricted in India, smuggling remains a serious threat to the tree. In 1993, the biggest and costliest manhunt in Indian history was launched to track down the leader of a notorious sandalwood smuggling ring whose gang smuggled more than $21.5 million worth of sandalwood in a few years’ time (18).

billions of dollars each year to the fragrance industry.

Ylang-ylang Tree

Ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata) made a grand entrance on the perfume stage with the introduction of Chanel No. 5 in 1921. The perfume was created by Ernest Beaux for Gabrielle “Coco” Chanel and was intended to be a representation of all that is “woman.” It immediately became a hit, especially following Marilyn Monroe’s confessio of wearing “nothing to bed but a little Chanel No 5” (7). It has been a topselling perfume ever since. Luxuriously expensive ingredients like ylang-ylang oil are typically reserved for fragrances created in the couturier houses of France such as Chanel, Yves Saint Laurent, or Guerlain, where prices for such perfumes can range from hundreds to tens of thousands of dollars.

Ylang-ylang, native to the Indonesian and Philippine archipelagoes, is one of the most commonly used of the floral oils “because it blooms with tropical abandon” (10). Despite the abundance of Philippine flora suitable for essential oils, the nation still ranks below other countries in Southeast Asian. In fact, the Comoro Islands are affectionately named the “perfume islands” since they export 80% of the world’s ylang-ylang essential oil (6).

The wine-red drupes of Coffea arabica, also known as the “Arabian coffee shrub.” Photo by Jeff McMilliam @ USDA-NRCS Plants Database

Interestingly, the French perfume market, traditionally ylang-ylang’s chief consumer, has increasingly turned to synthetic versions of this exotic fragrance. Thus, the demand for natural ylang-ylang essence has plummeted in recent years. A few of the more prominent perfume houses such as Givenchy, Clive Christian, and Chanel still incorporate the flowers’ natural oils into their high-end perfumes, but unfortunately for growers, ylangylang—once a lucrative cash crop—has been consigned to more mundane products such as MotionEaze™ (for motion sickness relief) and tourist souvenirs.

Sandalwood Tree

Some plant by-products become extremely expensive for consumers because of country-imposed export restrictions, the slow growth rate of certain species, or both. These scenarios create product scarcity, as well as inflated price indices on the global market. Sandalwood (Santalum album), a tree primarily native to

India, is a prime example of this supply and demand dilemma.

Throughout East Asian history, temple walls often were built with sandalwood because it was impervious to termites. In Ceylon, in the ninth century BCE, it was used to embalm royal corpses. It has been used for more than 4,000 years to make incense. Hindus use powdered sandalwood paste in temple ceremonies, as well as for personal adornment (e.g., forehead markings—the tikka (male) or bindi (female) representing the “third eye” in the chakra, or energy center). One Indian native reports that although sandalwood is protected by the Indian government poaching still continues. He says, “By this I mean that wild sandalwood [trees] in our forests are poached regularly, and the tree is not even safe if it grows in your yard, in a town, or city. I personally know of people who have gone on vacation and come back to find that their sandalwood tree has been cut down and taken away in the night!

I have always wanted to grow one at my home, but since it attracts bad attention I have never put one in the ground. Plus, I don’t think it is easy or [inexpensive] to get the saplings.” (14) With that reputation, it’s no wonder that sandalwood is considered a prized herbal tree. An additional consideration and constraint on sandalwood production is the tree’s growth rate. The plant parts with the highest concentration of essential oil are the inner heartwood and roots. Since the tree takes 15-20 years to fully develop these and up to 80 years to reach highest oil concentration, the crop cannot be grown quickly. Further, current harvest practices remove the entire tree and don’t provide for continual replenishment by regrowth. Thus, it cannot be considered a sustainable crop as it is currently managed and frequently ends up on the black market.

Guerlain, the famous French couturier perfume house, uses such a large quantity of sandalwood for its Samsara perfume that the company bought its own plantations in India to ensure a steady supply. Samsara, like many of the “oriental” perfume types, has sandalwood as its scent base. Other scents, like Indian jasmine, are woven through the sandalwood base. The oil is also used in other famous Guerlain fragrances such as Shalimar, L’ Heure Blue, Mitsouko, and Jicky, the latter reported to be a favorite scent of actor Sean Connery (7).

Olive Tree

Every tree on earth has its own role to play in its resident ecosystem and perhaps even on surrounding cultures. A small number of these trees are recognized for their herbal value within a national context, and even

Left: The fruit of the olive tree (Olea europaea) has been a staple of Mediterranean countries for centuries. Photo by H. Zell. Right: Aged olive tree trunk. Photo by Karystos.

fewer are explicitly valued on a global level. Of all the herbal trees, one seems to have stood the test of time, place, and culture, and has risen above all others for its value to humankind: the olive (Olea europaea).

As ubiquitous as the olive tree (and its by products) has become in today’s market, it is the quintessential example of an herbal tree that has changed the world. In fact, the fruit and the oil have been important staples in Mediterranean countries for more than 5,000 years. One of olive’s earliest associations with humankind is recorded in the Genesis flood story of the Bible when the dove brought back an olive branch to Noah, signifying that the floodwaters had receded. The Bible offers one of the most prolific recounts of the daily use of olives. They were used during sacrificial offerings, as a tonic for skin and hair, and medicinally in surgical operations. It was the base of perfumed ointments sold in Rome and Athens (16). In Egypt, olive oil was, and continues to be,

applied to the skin of babies in the same fashion as baby lotion is used in western countries. During the earliest Olympic Games—the ultimate in competitive events—the oil was burned in the Olympic torch. (In keeping with that tradition, the official flag of the 2004 Summer Olympic Games held in Athens, Greece, featured an olive wreath along with the Olympic rings as a symbol of peace and friendship). And, while only a “recent” introduction to the United States by some chronologies, olive tree cultivation secured its place in California agriculture as early as 1769 and has become a viable crop for research as well as agricultural production (20).

In many ways, the olive tree links modern life to ancient cultures by its association with almost every dimension of life, including the food, personal hygiene, medical, and commercial industries. While not directly associated with the modern perfume industry, olive oil has had an enormous impact on the development

Some Herbal Trees found in the National Herb Garden Coffee

Gum Arabic Ylang-ylang Olive

of cosmetic and household products. The rich oil has been used in everything from soaps to hair pomade to skin lotions. Palmolive® soap, which originally contained olive oil, sought to exploit the oil’s benefits during it advertising campaigns—often beyond its ability to perform to the industry’s claims. For example, according to Palmolive’s® manufacturers in 1938: “Yes! Husbands stay lovers…when wives guard against dry, lifeless, ‘middle-age’ skin!” Despite the hyperbolic claims, there is some truth to olive oil’s capacity as a skin restorative. With centuries of evidence, it’s hard to claim otherwise, though perhaps not with quite the miraculous results that Palmolive® would have us believe.

Medically, diets that contain a greater proportion of fat derived from olive oil rather than primarily saturated fats are deemed to be healthier according to many nutritionists. In addition to having a different fat profile than animal products (e.g., butter, lard), olive oil is reported to have additional health benefits. Numerous clinical studies have indicated that olive oil can help regulate cholesterol, provide anti-inflammatory, antithrombotic, antihypertensive, and vasodilatory effects, which translate to being cardioprotective. Research is being

The glossy green leaves of Coffea arabica are slightly rippled along their edges. Photo by J.S. Peterson @ USDA-NRCS Plants Database

done to investigate the oil’s protective qualities in relation to blood glucose levels and various forms of cancer (13).

“No tree is more closely associated with the history of man and the development of civilization than the olive” (emphasis mine) (9). Surely this tree, of all herbal trees, wins a top recommendation for the tree that has most changed the world.

Undeniably, plants influence almost every aspect of our lives. Herbal trees, though less numerous than their herbaceous counterparts, significantly impact people’s lives around the globe. We would do well to look above our heads from time to time rather than under our feet in appreciation of those trees that have, indeed, changed the world.

References

1. Banay, Sophia. February 3, 2006. Most expensive perfumes. Forbes.com. http://www.forbes.com/2006/02/03/most-expensive-perfumes-cx_ sb_0203fashion3_ls.html (accessed January 16, 2009).

2. Coffee Research Institute. No publication date. Coffee importation statistics. Table 1: Coffee importation of 60 kg sacks of coffee. http:// www.coffeeresearch.org/market/importations.htm (accessed January, 2009).

3. Cossalter, Christian. 1991. Acacia senegal—gum tree with promise for agroforestry. Nitrogen tree fixing association factsheet 91-02. http://www. winrock.org/fnrm/factnet/factpub/FACTSH/A_senegal.html (accessed January 16, 2009).

4. Duke, James A. 1983. Handbook of energy crops. Unpublished. http:// www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke¬¬_energy/Acacia_senegal.html (accessed January 16, 2009).

5. García, Zoraida. 2006. Multilateral trade agreements on agriculture and comodities, agriculture, trade negotiations, and gender. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

6. Grainger, Sarah. September 14, 2004. Comoros seeks sweet smell of success. BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3652780.stm (accessed January, 2009).

7. Irvine, Susan. 1995. Perfume. New York: Crescent Books, Random House Value Publishing, Inc.

8. Moldenke, Harold N. and Alma L. Moldenke. 1952. Plants of the Bible. New York: The Ronald Press.

9. Moore, G.T. 1931. Plants of the Bible. Bulletin of the Missouri Botanical Garden. 19:149-159.

10. Morris, Edwin T. 1984. Fragrance. Greenwich, CT: E.T. Morris & Co.

11. Morrison, B.Y. 1944. New quinine from this hemisphere. The National Horticultural Magazine. 23 (1): 21-22

Coffea arabica makes a decorative container plant for the patio. Photo by Christine Moore

12. NYJobsource.com. 20 January, 2010. http://nyjobsource.com/starbucks.html (accessed 18 August, 2010).

13. Pelucchi C., C. Bosetti, M. Rossi, E. Negri and C. La Vecchia. November, 2009. Selected aspects of Mediterranean diet and cancer risk. Nutrition and Cancer 61(6):756-66.

14. Personal communication with Kamalesh Kalarickal (National Herb Garden volunteer), via e-mail, December 23, 2009.

15. Simpson, Beryl Brintnall and Molly Conner Ogorzaly. 2001. Economic botany. 3d ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

16. Skinner, C. M. 1911. Myths and legends of flowers, trees, fruits, and plants in all ages and in all climes. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott.

17. Starbucks Coffee Company. Investor relations financial highlights. http://phx. corporate-ir.net/External.File?item=UGFyZW50SUQ9MjcxMDV8Q2hpbG RJRD0tMXxUeXBlPTM=&t=1 (accessed March 22, 2010).

18. TED Case Studies: Indian sandalwood case. http://www1.american.edu/ projects/mandala/TED/sandalwd.htm (accessed August 18, 2010).

19. University of California, Agriculture and Natural Resources. 2010. Making a Difference: California olive oil is worth the splurge. http://ucanr. org/?story=79# (accessed August 19, 2010).

20. Vandaveer, Chelsie. April 30, 2002. What was Jesuit powder? http://www. killerplants.com/plants-that-changed-history/20020430.asp (accessed February 12, 2009).

Chrissy Moore attended St. Mary’s College of Maryland. Having completed two horticulture internships at the U.S. National Arboretum, she was hired by the Education and Visitor Services Unit at the Arboretum in 1996. She then served as the National Herb Garden’s gardener from 1998 until September, 2007, when she accepted her current position as curator of the garden. She is a member of the Potomac Unit of The Herb Society of America. She is most fond of fragrant herbs but admits to being a sucker for plants with fascinating or unusual “stories,” as they provide boundless learning and teaching opportunities in the National Herb Garden.