Benefits and Applications of Nanotechnology in Oil Industries: Upstream and Downstream Operations - Egypt

By

Adel M. Salem Ragab, Ph. D., American University in Cairo (AUC) and Suez University, Egypt Abdelrahman Ibrahim El-Diasty, RA, American University in Cairo (AUC) and Suez University, Egypt

Abstract it provides novel approaches to improved post production processes.

Nanotechnology

has become the buzz Only very few publications were word of the decade! able to report the latest accomplishThe precise manipu- ments in different Petroleum Engilation and control of matter at dimen- neering domains. This paper provides sions of (1-100) nanometers have an overview of the latest Nano-technorevolutionized many industries includ- logical solutions in the O&G industry ing the Oil and Gas industry. Its broad and covers the recent research develimpact on more than one discipline is opments that have been carried out making it of increasing interest to con- around the world and paves the way cerned parties. for many researchers and organizations who are interested in the integra-

The Nanotechnology applications tion of these technological advancehave pierced through different Petro- ments, to discover the challenges and leum disciplines from Exploration, the revolution that Nanotechnology to Reservoir, Drilling, Completion, is about to bring to O&G Industry in Production and Processing & Refin- Egypt. ery. For instance, Nano-sensors have been developed rapidly to enhance the Egypt’s domestic demand for oil resolution of the subsurface imaging is increasing rapidly. Oil consumption leading to advanced field characterization techniques. Nanotechnology also has grown by more than 30% in the past ten years. Also, the hydrocarbon reserves in Egypt have witnessed an strikes the stage of production enor- average increase of 5%/year over the mously to enhance the oil recovery past seven years, while the average via molecular modification and ma- recovery factor is still stuck at the 35%. nipulate the interfacial characteristics. Nanotechnology holds the key solution Moreover, in a very similar fashion, to this local production challenge as it helps increase the recovered oil and decreases the cost of production by eliminating problems that occur throughout the field development operations.

Introduction

Nanotechnology is the use of very small pieces of material, at dimensions between approximately 1 and 100 nanometers, by themselves or their manipulation to create new large scale materials, where unique phenomena enable novel applications.

In simple terms, Nanotechnology is science, engineering, and technology conducted at the Nanoscale. Nanotechnology draws its name from the prefix “nano”. A nanometer is one-billionth of a meter- a distance equal to two to twenty atoms (depending on what type of atom) laid down next to each other.

Nanotechnology refers to manipulating the structure of matter on a length scale of some small number of nanometers, interpreted by different people at different times as meaning anything from 0.1 nm (controlling the

arrangement of individual atoms) to arrangement of individual atoms) to 100 nm or more. 100 nm or more.

Richard Feynman was the first Richard Feynman was the first scientist to suggest (in 1959) that scientist to suggest (in 1959) that devices and materials could someday devices and materials could someday be fabricated to atomic specifications. be fabricated to atomic specifications. “The principles of physics, as far as “The principles of physics, as far as I can see, do not speak against the I can see, do not speak against the possibility of maneuvering things possibility of maneuvering things atom by atom”. This concept was atom by atom”. This concept was expanded and popularized in a expanded and popularized in a 1986 book ‘Engines of Creation’ 1986 book ‘Engines of Creation’ by K Eric Drexler, who applied the by K Eric Drexler, who applied the term nanotechnology to Feynman’s term nanotechnology to Feynman’s vision. As shown in Figure 1, it is a vision. As shown in Figure 1, it is a comparison between different scale comparison between different scale things referenced to the nanometer. things referenced to the nanometer.

There are many new material There are many new material terminologies used in this trend of terminologies used in this trend of technology. To give a short overview technology. To give a short overview of some of the different types of of some of the different types of nanomaterials, types of interest in Oil nanomaterials, types of interest in Oil and Gas Industry can be mentioned. and Gas Industry can be mentioned.

Engineered Nano Materials Engineered Nano Materials

Nanoparticles: Nanoparticles are Nanoparticles: Nanoparticles are the simplest form of structures with the simplest form of structures with sizes in the nm range. In principle, any sizes in the nm range. In principle, any collection of atoms bonded together collection of atoms bonded together with a structural radius of < 100 nm with a structural radius of < 100 nm can be considered a nanoparticle. can be considered a nanoparticle.

The tiny nature of nanoparticles The tiny nature of nanoparticles results in some useful characteristics, results in some useful characteristics, such as an increased surface area such as an increased surface area (Figure 2.) to which other materials (Figure 2.) to which other materials can bond in ways that make for stronger can bond in ways that make for stronger or more lightweight materials. At the or more lightweight materials. At the nanoscale, size does matter when it nanoscale, size does matter when it comes to how molecules react to and comes to how molecules react to and bond with each other.bond with each other.

Suspensions of nanoparticles are Suspensions of nanoparticles are possible because the interaction of possible because the interaction of the particle surface with the solvent is the particle surface with the solvent is strong enough to overcome differences strong enough to overcome differences in density, which usually result in a in density, which usually result in a material either sinking or floating in a material either sinking or floating in a liquid forming ‘Nanofluid’.liquid forming ‘Nanofluid’.

Nanofluid: Nanofluids for oil and Nanofluid: Nanofluids for oil and gas field applications are defined as gas field applications are defined as any fluids used in the exploration and any fluids used in the exploration and exploitation of oil and gas that contain exploitation of oil and gas that contain at least one additive with particle size at least one additive with particle size in the range of 1-100 nanometers. in the range of 1-100 nanometers.

Fullerenes and Carbon Nanotubes: Fullerenes and Carbon Nanotubes:

A fullerene is any molecule A fullerene is any molecule composed entirely of carbon in the composed entirely of carbon in the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid or tube. Spherical fullerenes are or tube. Spherical fullerenes are also called buckyballs. Cylindrical also called buckyballs. Cylindrical ones are called carbon nanotubes or ones are called carbon nanotubes or buckytubes. buckytubes.

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are allotropes of carbon with a cylindrical allotropes of carbon with a cylindrical nanostructure. Nanotubes have nanostructure. Nanotubes have been constructed with length-tobeen constructed with length-todiameter ratio of up to 132,000,000:1. diameter ratio of up to 132,000,000:1. Nanotubes are categorized as singleNanotubes are categorized as singlewalled nanotubes (SWNTs) (Figure walled nanotubes (SWNTs) (Figure 3.a) and multi-walled nanotubes 3.a) and multi-walled nanotubes (MWNTs) (Figure 3.b(MWNTs) (Figure 3.b). ).

Carbon Nanotubes show a unique Carbon Nanotubes show a unique combination of stiffness, strength, combination of stiffness, strength, and tenacity compared to other fiber and tenacity compared to other fiber materials which usually lack one or materials which usually lack one or more of these properties. Thermal more of these properties. Thermal and electrical conductivity are also and electrical conductivity are also very high, and comparable to other very high, and comparable to other conductive materials.conductive materials.

Oil and Gas IndustryOil and Gas Industry

Authors tried to search and collect Authors tried to search and collect all published and ongoing researches all published and ongoing researches in an attempt to provide an overall in an attempt to provide an overall view of all the current and future view of all the current and future applications of Nanotechnology in all applications of Nanotechnology in all Oil and Gas disciplines. In addition to Oil and Gas disciplines. In addition to mentioning the future challenges that mentioning the future challenges that will meet Nanotechnology and how will meet Nanotechnology and how are current researches working on are current researches working on these challenges.these challenges.

1. 1.ExplorationExploration formation of imaging contrast agents formation of imaging contrast agents (Krishnamoori, 2006). Hyperpolarized (Krishnamoori, 2006). Hyperpolarized silicon nanoparticles provide a novel silicon nanoparticles provide a novel tool for measuring and imaging in oil tool for measuring and imaging in oil exploration (Song and Marcus, 2007). exploration (Song and Marcus, 2007).

Nanosensors, ranging from 1-100 Nanosensors, ranging from 1-100 nm, have captured the attention and nm, have captured the attention and imagination of petroleum geologists imagination of petroleum geologists (Pitkethly, 2004).(Pitkethly, 2004).

Nanoparticles with noticeable Nanoparticles with noticeable alterations in optical, magnetic, and alterations in optical, magnetic, and electrical properties compared to their electrical properties compared to their bulk counterparts are excellent tools bulk counterparts are excellent tools for the development of sensors and the for the development of sensors and the

There are now several active There are now several active and promising programmes to and promising programmes to develop nanosensors compatible develop nanosensors compatible with temperature and pressure with temperature and pressure ratings in deep wells and hostile ratings in deep wells and hostile environments. Nanosensors are environments. Nanosensors are deployed in the pore space by means deployed in the pore space by means of “nanodust” to provide data on of “nanodust” to provide data on reservoir characterization, fluid-flow reservoir characterization, fluid-flow monitoring, and fluid-type recognition monitoring, and fluid-type recognition (Esmaeili, 2009). (Esmaeili, 2009).

Nano-Computerized Tomography Nano-Computerized Tomography (CT) can image tight gas sands, tight (CT) can image tight gas sands, tight shales, and tight carbonates in which shales, and tight carbonates in which the pore structure is below what microthe pore structure is below what microCT can detect. CT can detect.

In addition, nanotechnology In addition, nanotechnology has the potential to help develop has the potential to help develop geothermal resources by enhancing geothermal resources by enhancing thermal conductivity, and nano-based thermal conductivity, and nano-based materials could be used for geothermal materials could be used for geothermal production. Nanoscale metals have production. Nanoscale metals have already been used to delineate ore already been used to delineate ore deposits for geochemical exploration deposits for geochemical exploration (Kong and Ohadi, 2010)(Kong and Ohadi, 2010)

2. Drilling and Completion 2. Drilling and Completion

2.1. Drilling Fluids2.1. Drilling Fluids

Fluid Loss Control and Wellbore Fluid Loss Control and Wellbore

Stability: There are several researchers Stability: There are several researchers working on using nanoparticles as working on using nanoparticles as drilling fluid additives to reduce the drilling fluid additives to reduce the fluid loss and enhance the wellbore fluid loss and enhance the wellbore stability. The filter cake developed stability. The filter cake developed during the Nanoparticles-based drilling during the Nanoparticles-based drilling fluid filtration is very thin, which fluid filtration is very thin, which implies high potential for reducing the implies high potential for reducing the differential pressure sticking problem differential pressure sticking problem and formation damage while drilling. and formation damage while drilling.

In shale formations with nanodarcy In shale formations with nanodarcy (nd) permeability, the nanometer-sized (nd) permeability, the nanometer-sized pores prevent the formation of the pores prevent the formation of the filter cake that is responsible for fluid filter cake that is responsible for fluid loss reduction. Nanoparticles can be loss reduction. Nanoparticles can be added to the drilling fluid to minimize added to the drilling fluid to minimize

shale permeability through physically plugging the nanometer-sized pores and shut off water loss. Hence, Nanoparticles can provide potential solution for environmentally sensitive areas where Oil-based muds used as a solution to shale instability problems (Price et al., 2012).

Bit Balling: According to (Amanullah and Al-Tahini, 2009), Nanomaterialbased drilling mud with hydrophobic film forming capability on the bit and stabilizer surfaces is expected to eliminate the bit and stabilizer balling totally. Due to high surface area to volume ratio and very low concentration requirement compared to macro and micromaterial-based fluids, nano-based fluid could be the fluid of choice for drilling in shale which is very reactive, highly pliable, and tenacious and thus can stick easily to the bit, stabilizers, tool joints, etc. as it prevents the reduction in ROP and in total operating cost.

Torque and Drag: Due to fine and very thin film forming capability of nanomaterials, nano-based fluids can provide a significant reduction of the frictional resistance between the pipe and the borehole wall due to the formation of a continuous and thin lubricating film in the wall-pipe interface.

Moreover, the tiny spherical nanoparticles may create an ultrathin bed of ball bearing type surface between the pipe and the borehole wall and thus can allow easy sliding of the drill string along the nano-based ballbearing surface. This highlights the extraordinary role of nano-based smart fluid in reducing the torque and drags problems of horizontal, extended reach, multilateral and coiled tubing drilling (Amanullah and Al-Tahini, 2009).

Removal of Toxic Gases: Hydrogen sulfide is a very dangerous, toxic and corrosive gas. It can diffuse into drilling fluid from formations during drilling of gas and oil wells. Hydrogen sulfide should be removed from the mud to reduce the environmental pollution, protect the health of drilling workers and prevent corrosion of pipelines and equipment.

Sayyadnejad et al., 2008, used 1425 nm zinc oxide particles size and 44-56 m2/g specific surface area to remove hydrogen sulfide from waterbased drilling fluid according to the following chemical reaction

(ZnO + H2S → ZnS + H2O)

The efficiency of these nanoparticles in the removal of hydrogen sulfide from drilling mud was evaluated and compared with that of bulk zinc oxide. Their results demonstrated that synthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles are completely able to remove hydrogen sulfide from water based drilling mud in about 15 min., whereas bulk zinc oxide is able to remove 2.5% of hydrogen sulfide in as long as 90 min. under the same operating conditions.

High Temperature and High Pres-

sure (HTHP) Challenges: In high temperature and high pressure drilling (HTHP) operations, usual drilling fluid systems have relatively poor heat transfer coefficient. The cooling efficiency of the traditional drilling fluids decreases due to slow dissipation of heat from the surfaces of down hole tools and equipment. Hence, there is a higher scope of equipment failure due to thermal degradation effect of high temperature.

The extremely high surface area to volume ratio of nanoparticles enhances the thermal conductivity of Nanobased drilling fluids which provides efficient cooling of drill bit leading to a significant increase in operating life cycle of a drill bit.

Due to the presence of an astronomical high number of extremely tiny particles with huge surface area, high heat tolerance, high thermal conductivity, high mobility, effective interaction with external and internal rock surfaces, nano-based drilling mud systems are expected to play a pivotal role in current and future HTHP drilling operations, complex drilling conditions, deep water drilling operations, etc. (Amanullah et. al., 2011)

Increase down hole tools life: The down hole tools and equipment are always exposed to abrasive forces due to high kinetic energy associated with the particles present naturally in the subsurface formations and the drill solids added to the drilling fluid system for specific functions. These forces cause the wear and the tear for most of the down hole equipment, especially in deviated and horizontal wells where the tools are more exposed to these abrasive forces.

Because of their extremely small size, nanoparticles are preferred to be used in drilling fluid design as their abrasive forces are negligible with less kinetic energy impact. In addition to all advantages of using nanoparticle in mud design, it is safer than conventional mud from the point of environmental view. The nanoparticles are added to mud in small amount, with low concentration about 1%. So, Nano-based drilling fluids could be the fluid of choice in conducting drilling operations in sensitive environments to protect other natural resources (Amanullah et. al., 2011).

2.2. Drilling Bits

Nanodiamond PDC Technology:

Carbon nanomaterials are extremely interesting because of their unique combination of mechanical, structural, electrical and thermal properties. In case of challenging drilling operations, harsher conditions are met and the need for effective drilling bits increases.

Nanodiamond particles have been functionalized for polycrystalline diamond applications such as polycrystalline diamond compact

(PDC) cutters for drill bits. They give PDC cutters unique surface characteristics that allow them to integrate homogeneously into PDC synthesis.

Chakraborty et al., 2012, studied the functionalization of nanodiamond, integration into the PDC matrix and subsequent property enhancement in comparison to the base PDC matrix. The performance of PDC cutters produced, the behaviors and proposed mechanisms are still an area of interest.

2.3. Down Hole Tools

High Strength Nanostructured

Materials: Flow control and Completion devices such as fracturing balls, discs, and plugs are used for sleeve actuation or stimulation diversion during fracturing. Traditional light weight material for ball or plug applications are prone to early yielding or shape changes. The yield strength of conventional aluminum alloys is usually less than 400 MPa.

Nanotechnology can be effectively employed to enhance the mechanical properties and other desirable properties through engineering the material microstructure (Zhang et al., 2012).

Current polymer material must be milled away, flowed back or otherwise removed before production. Severe deformation of currently used materials that prevent flow back have been reported, leading to potential restrictions in the tubing which requires costly intervention operations to either remove or replace the tools and resulting in higher operational inefficiency.

Using controlled electrolytic metallic (CEM) nanostructured material that is lighter than aluminum and stronger than some mild steels, but disintegrates when it is exposed to the appropriate fluid. The disintegration process works through electrochemical reactions that are controlled by nanoscale coatings within the composite grain structure. The nanomatrix of the material is high strength and has unique chemical properties that conventional materials do not.

Salinas et al., 2012, explained the chemistry and layering of the nanoscale coating within the grain structure, the unique material properties, and lab testing data of this truly interventionless nanostructured material technology.

2.4. Cement

Cement spacer: Nano-emulsions are emulsions where the droplet size of the internal phase is in the nanoscale (<500 nm). Due to their small dimensions they have a high surface area and show very different properties. Maserati et al., 2010 proposed that solvent in water nano-emulsions used as cement spacer formulation could allow optimizing the cleaning of the casing during the cement job with a high improvement of the performances of the spacers currently in use.

Maserati et al., 2010, studied the formulation of direct nano-emulsions (O/W), with a selected solvent as internal phase, in order to improve the casing – open hole cleaning and reverse the surfaces wettability to allow better adhesion of slurry between casing and hole.

Using this methodology, based on high efficiency system with reduced chemical dosage, can also result in a considerable optimization of product cost of effective cement operation.

Enhancing Cement Properties: Due to the very high surface area of nanomaterials, they can also be used in oil well cementing to accelerate the cement hydration process, increase compressive strength, help control fluid loss, reduce probability of casing collapse and prevent the gas migration which is one of the cementing problems in gas wells. Moreover, they are often required in small quantities.

Santra et al., 2012, managed to investigate several types of nanomaterials to be used in the oil well cementing industry: (1) nanosilica and nanoalumina as potential accelerators; (2) nanomaterials including carbon nanotubes (CNTs) with high aspect ratio to enhance mechanical properties; (3) nanomaterials to reduce permeability/porosity; and (4) nanomaterials to increase thermal and/ or electrical conductivity.

Currently, the most active research areas dealing with cement and concrete are: understanding of the hydration of cement particles and the use of Nanosize ingredients such as alumina and Nano carbon tubes particles. CNT are expected to have several distinct advantages as a reinforcing material for cements as compared to more traditional fibers (Rahimirad et al., 2012).

2.5. Well Logging

Logging-while-drilling (LWD): Currently, almost all available neutron porosity logging-while-drilling (LWD) tools use He-3 detectors to detect neutrons down hole due to their mechanical robustness and the absence of the limitations to operate at high temperatures.

Unfortunately, the lack of sufficient quantities of the He-3 isotope caused by the depletion of its stockpile accumulated during the Cold War makes this material unavailable to well logging industry for the next 3 to 5 years. Among all other available neutron detection technologies, only Li-6 scintillation detectors do not have limitations on neutron detection efficiency that would prevent them from consideration for LWD applications (Nikitin and Korjik, 2012).

The key component of Li-6 scintillation detector is the scintillation

material containing Li-6 isotope. To be used as detectors for neutron porosity LWD tools based on pulsed neutron generators (PNG), such material should be able to operate at high temperature and enable large neutron detector constructions.

Nikitin and Korjik, 2012, presented new Li-6 scintillation nanostructured glass-ceramics that perform substantially better than all available Li-6 scintillation materials. It is this performance improvement provided by nanostructured nature of obtained material which enables its use in the neutron detectors of PNGbased neutron porosity LWD tools.

3. Production:

3.1. Recovery of Hydrates:

Gas Hydrate is an ice-like crystalline solid formed from a mixture of water and natural gas, usually methane. Hydrates can produce 160 times their volume of methane which is an infinite source of energy waiting to be tapped.

Bhatia and Chacko, 2011, mentioned that the recovery of gas from hydrates requires the dissociation of gas hydrates which can be accomplished in at least three ways: thermal recovery, depressurization or by chemical inhibition. But, the problems associated are:

 Most chemical additives (salt, methanol, and glycol) cause pipe and equipment corrosion, ecological problems.

 Preheated gas or liquid transportation down to hydrate zone is accompanied by extensive heat loss.

 Microwave or electromagnetic method also requires vast energy transfer to decomposition zone and is inefficient.

Bhatia and Chacko, 2011, suggested the injection of air-suspended selfheating Ni-Fe nanoparticles (50 nm) in the hydrate formation through horizontal well. These particles will penetrate deep into the class I, II and H hydrate reservoir by passing through the cavities (86-95 nm). The selfheating of Ni-Fe particles in a magnetic field is caused by hysteresis loss and relaxation losses. These particles cause a temperature rise up to 42 0C in formation leading to disturbance in thermodynamic equilibrium and causing the water cage to decompose and release methane. In this technique, the pressure of the fluids in contact with hydrate is lowered, pushing the hydrate out of its stability region and leading to its decomposition.

Bhatia and Chacko, 2011, discovered that the less expensive, readily available Eggwhite (Ovalbumin) can catalyze the reaction which results in large scale formation of these nanoparticles. The main advantage of this technique is the very low dosage requirements (small quantity required for 1m3 of Hydrate decomposition). Moreover, the nanoparticles used are non-poisonous, environment friendly.

3.2. Stimulation

Viscoelastic Surfactant (VES) Stim-

ulation Fluid: High-molecular-weight cross-linked polymer fluids have been used to stimulate oil and gas wells for decades. These fluids exhibit exceptional viscosity, thermal stability, proppant transportability, and fluid leak-off control. However, a major drawback of cross-linked polymer fluids is the amount of polymer residue they leave behind. Polymer residue has been shown to significantly damage formation permeability and fracture conductivity.

Recently, viscoelastic surfactant (VES) fluids composed of lowmolecular-weight surfactants have been used as hydraulic fracturing and frac-packing fluids. The surfactants structurally arrange in brine to form rod-like micelles that exhibit viscoelastic fluid behavior. VES fluids, once broken, leave very little residue or production damage. However, excessive fluid leak-off and poor thermal stability has significantly limited their use (Crews and Huang, 2008).

Huang et al., 2007, investigated the nanometer-scale particles and displayed unusual surface morphologies and have high surface reactivity. These nanometer-scale particles, through chemisorption and surface charge attraction, associate with VES micelles to: 1) stabilize fluid viscosity at high temperatures; and 2) produce a pseudo filter cake of viscous VES fluid that significantly reduces the rate of fluid loss and improves fluid efficiency. When internal breakers are used to break the VES micelles, the fluid will dramatically lose its viscosity and the pseudo-filter cake will then break into nanometer-sized particles. Since the particles are small enough to pass through the pore throat of producing formations, they will be flowed back with the producing fluids, and no damage will be generated. The results of rheology leak-off and core flow tests will be presented for the VES fluid systems at temperatures 150°F and 250°F as illustrated in Figure 4.

3.3. Scale Inhibition:

Kazemi et al., 2012, recommended preventing adhesion of Scale on Rock by Nanoscale Modification of the Surface. They showed in their work that organosilane has some potential to prevent scale deposition directly – i.e. Even in the absence of scale inhibitors. Creation of self-assembled organosilane films from solutions of different concentrations showed differences in film density/thickness and in scale deposition onto the films. This suggests that there are different film structures present, with different propensities to inhibit scale, and this in turn suggests that there is potential to optimize such films for the purpose of inhibiting scale deposition.

Kumar et al., 2012 provided new idea

that can potentially inhibit the formation of scales inside the production tubing by Creating a super hydrophobic surface with multi-scale nano structures on the inside of the production tubing can greatly reduce the chances of scale deposition. This surface is created on epoxy paint surfaces using a feasible dip coating process. Microstructures are created on this surface using sandblast. Then nano structures are introduced on to the micro surface by anchoring 50-100 micro-meter SiO2 particles and finally completed by dip coating with nano SiO2/epoxy adhesive solution as shown in Figure 5.

The hydrophobicity is further enhanced by another dip coating of a low surface energy polymer, aminopropyl. The super hydrophobic surface shows a contact angle of 167.8 degrees (Cui et al. 2009) for water, and has high stability in basic and common organic solvents (Kumar et al., 2012).

4. Reservoir Management and EOR

4.1. Enhanced Oil Recovery

Nanoparticles are small enough to pass through pore throats in typical reservoirs, but they nevertheless can be retained by the rock.

Rodriguez et al., 2009, injected concentrated (up to ~20 wt. %) aqueous suspensions of surface-treated silica nanoparticles (D = 5 nm and 20 nm) into sedimentary rocks of different lithologies and permeabilities. The particles generally undergo little ultimate retention, nearly all being eluted by a lengthy post flush.

The Nanoparticles in an aqueous dispersion will assemble themselves into structural arrays at a discontinuous phase such as oil, gas, paraffin, or polymer. The particles that are present in this three-phase contact region tend to form a wedge-like structure and force themselves between the discontinuous phase and the substrate as illustrated in Figure 6.

Particles present in the bulk fluid exert pressure forcing the particles in the confined region forward, imparting the disjoining pressure force. The energies that drive this mechanism are Brownian motion, and electrostatic repulsion between the particles (Kirtiprakash et al., 2012).

The force imparted by a single particle is extremely weak, but when large amounts of small particles are present, referred to as the particle volume fraction, the force can be upwards of 50,000 Pa at the vertex as shown in Figure 7.

When this force is confined to the vertex of the discontinuous phases, displacement occurs in an attempt to regain equilibrium.

Ogolo et al., 2012, used nanoparticles oxides of Aluminum, Zinc, Magnesium, Iron, Zirconium, Nickel, Tin and Silicon. It was imperative to find out the effect of these nanoparticle oxides on oil recovery since this is the primary objective of the oil industry.

4.2. Nanosensors for Hydrocarbon Detection in Oil-Field Rocks:

Nanoparticles that show minimal retention can be employed as sensingcapability carrier to detect fluid and rock properties of the producing zone.

For example, paramagnetic nanoparticles delivered to the target formation could evaluate fluids saturations there, with application of magnetic field and measurement of response (Zhang et al., 2011).

In other words, Sequestering a hydrophobic compound in a Nanoparticle (NP) composed of an oxidized carbon core and a polymer shell can be extended to efficiently transport hydrophobic compounds through oil-field rocks and selectively release them when the rock contains oil. These readily-prepared NPs bearing cargo could be injected into the subsurface and then recovered and analyzed for the presence of the cargo; release of the cargo would indicate the presence of oil. When used in this manner, the NPs can be described as nanoreporters as shown in Figure 8. (Berlin et al., 2011).

In Figure 8, (a) NPs (grey circle with blue lines radiating) carrying hydrophobic cargo (red rectangles) are injected into the subsurface. (b) While flowing through the subsurface, the nanoreporters encounter oil and release their hydrophobic cargo into the oil. (c) The nanoreporters are recovered and analyzed for the presence of the cargo; the extent of its absence indicates the extent of subsurface oil. (Berlin et al., 2011).

4.3. Oil-Microbe Detection Tool Using Nano Optical Fibers:

Nano Optical Fibers are used for transmission of laser light, penetrating the formation, to the required destination in the porous rock matrix and receive the reflected light.

Jahagirdar, 2008, proposed the ‘Oil-Microbe Detection Tool’, using Nano optical fibers as a part of the tool, to detect he bypassed oil or the oil left behind after waterflooding, which has followed a cycle of Microbial Enhanced Oil Recovery (MEOR). This methodology makes the planning of EOR operation, after knowing the precise regions where bypassed oil resides, easier and efficient.

5. Refining and Processing

The oil refining and petrochemical industry is the first area to which Nanotechnology has contributed with lots of applications and potential solution to its challenges. Nanoparticle catalysts have been used for almost 100 years in the refinery industry.

During the last two decades, nanotechnology has made substantial contributions to refining and converting fossil fuels. The development of

mesoporous catalyst materials such as MCM-41 has significantly changed downstream refining. Nano-filters and particles have the ability to remove harmful toxic substances such as nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, and related acids and acid anhydrides from vapor, and mercury from soil and water, with exact precision.

Nanotechnology further provides solutions for carbon capture and long-term storage. Emerging nanotechnology has opened the door to the development of a new generation of nanomembranes for enhanced separation of gas streams and removal of impurities from oil (Kong and Ohadi, 2010).

Upgrading of bitumen and heavy crude oil has been another important challenge. Because of their high density and viscosity, it is difficult to handle and transport these chemicals to locations where they can be converted into valuable products. Nano-catalysts may offer a solution for on-site upgrading of bitumen and heavy crude oil (Ying and Sun, 1997). Significant resources and intense research activities have been devoted to develop processes and specifically designed nanocatalysts for on-site field upgrading combined with hydrogen/ methane production (Esmaeili, 2009).

Future Challenges in Egypt

Egypt’s domestic demand for oil is increasing rapidly. Oil consumption has grown by more than 30% in the past ten years. Also, the hydrocarbon reserves in Egypt have witnessed an average increase of 5% / year over the past seven years, while the average recovery factor is still stuck at the 35%.

Field development operations are considered as one of the effective solutions to meet the soaring energy demand. Nanotechnology holds the key solution to this local production challenge as it helps increase the recovered oil and decreases the cost of production by eliminating problems that occur throughout the field development operations.

For increasing the production, Egypt has large resources of heavy oil have not been well managed yet. Moreover, up till now, Unconventional Resources have not been explored. Present updates technologies have to be applied to explore more fields and improve the development operations.

Advanced methods of exploration, remote sensing and seismic with improved resolution could change the future of Oil and Gas. Nanosensors and imaging method can improve the success of the exploration by improving data gathering, recognizing shallow hazards, and avoiding dry holes.

For decreasing production costs, many solutions have been mentioned above for almost all massive problems occurring within development operations from drilling through cementing, logging and completion to production.

Nanotechnology may be one of the magic solution to lots of challenges in Egypt and worldwide, but being still under research, at least it is a must to encourage the research work on this trend and give it more interest trying to keep updated with latest technologies worldwide.

There are numerous areas of the petroleum industry where nanotechnology can contribute to more efficient, less expensive, and more environmentally technologies than those that are readily available. The future possibilities for nanotechnology in the petroleum industry are identified as follows (Mokhatab et al., 2006; Esmaeili, 2009; Jackson, 2005; Kong and Ohadi, 2010):

1)Improved success of exploration by improving data gathering, recognizing shallow hazards, and avoiding dry holes.

2)Nanotechnology-enhanced materials that provide strength and endurance to increase performance and reliability in drilling, tubular goods, and rotating parts.

3)Improved elastomers, critical to deep drilling and drilling in hightemperature/high-pressure environments.

4)Production assurance in diagnostics, monitoring surveillance, and management strategies.

5)Corrosion management for surface, subsurface, and facilities applications.

6)Lightweight, rugged materials that reduce weight requirements on offshore platforms, and more reliable and more energy-efficient transportation vessels.

7)Selective filtration and waste management for water and carbon nanotube applications.

8)Enhanced oil and gas recovery through reservoir property modification, facility retrofitting, gas property modification, and water injection.

9)Refining and petrochemicals technologies.

Conclusions

This paper has provided a review on the latest research progress in Nanotechnology applications of interest and showed that Nanotechnology offers real potentials of changing the way we look at oil and gas industry. It presented most recent laboratory work and showed the promising future of Nanotechnology applications in the forms of structural nanomaterials, smart nanofluids, advanced nanosensors and nanomembranes.

Dr. Adel Moh. Salem Ragab is currently an Asst. Prof. of Petroleum Engineering at American University in Cairo (AUC), Petroleum and Energy Department. Dr. Adel got his Ph.D. from Leoben University 2008, Austria, and got both of his BSc and MSc from Suez Canal University, Egypt, all in Petroleum Engineering. After receiving his Ph. D., he worked as an Asst. prof. of Petroleum Engineering at Department of Petroleum Engineering – Suez Canal University (SCU). In 19951996, he worked as a field Petroleum Production Engineer at Qarun Petroleum Company Western Desert – Egypt. His research areas include; simulation of multiphase flow under steady and transient conditions, characterization of formation damage fluids, Enhanced Oil recovery, and Nanotechnology applications in upstream and downstream in oil field industry, Oil shale, and Well Testing. During his studies Dr. Adel gained international experience at Bologna University, Italy on the advances use of NMR, and at Leoben University on simulation.

Abdelrahman Ibrahim El-Diasty

- Research Assistant at Department of Petroleum & Energy Engineering , School of Sciences & Engineering (SSE), The American University in Cairo (AUC), Cairo, Egypt - Junior Student (3rd year) at Petroleum Eng. Department, Faculty of Petroleum and Mining Engineering, Suez University, Suez, Egypt - 1ST Place, SPE North Africa Sub-regional Student paper Contest presented a paper titled ‘Nanotechnology and its implications for EOR in Egypt’ Dec., 2012 - Gave an online presentation titled ‘The Revolution that Nanotechnology is about to Bring to the Oil & Gas Industry’ at ‘Actual Problems of Science and Technologies’ conference organized by USPTU_SPE, Russia NOV., 2012 - SPE 2012 Star Academic Scholarship recipient for Middle East Region, May, 2012

References

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USPTU_SPE, Russia, and 16- Nov., 2012. 3. Anton Nikitin and Mikhail Korjik; An Impact of Nanotechnology on the Next Generation of Neutron Porosity LWD Tools, SPE

International Oilfield Nanotechnology Conference held in

Noordwijk, The Netherlands, 12–14 June 2012, SPE 157024. 4. Ashok Santra, SPE, Peter J. Boul, and Xueyu Pang; Influence of Nanomaterials in Oil well Cement Hydration and Mechanical

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Richard; Controlled Electrolytic Metallics - An Interventionless

Nanostructured Platform, SPE International Oilfield

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Interface Science. 337, 2, 2009. 7. Deepak Kumar, Sadaf S. Chishti, AbhishekRai and Samarth D. Patwardhan; Scale Inhibition using Nano-silica Particles,

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Italy, 19–22 September 2010, SPE 133033. 11. Jackson, S. A.; Innovation and Human Capital: Energy Security and the Quiet Crisis, American Petroleum Institute, 2005 12. Jacob M. Berlin, Jie Yu, Wei Lu, Erin E. Walsh, Lunliang Zhang,

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USA, 11–13 April 2011, SPE 141528. 13. James B. Crews and Tianping Huang; Performance Enhancements

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Figure 1: The Scale of things referenced to Nanometer (Source: http://inl.int/)

Figure 2: Increasing the surface area with nanoparticles

(a)

(b) Figure (3: a) Single-Walled Carbon Nano Tube, b) Multi-Walled Carbon Nano Tube (Source: nanotech-now.com)

Figure 4: Illustration of Internally Breaking Pseudo-Cross-linked VES Fluid (Crews and Huang, 2008)

Figure 5: Silicate particles being adhered to the nano structures of epoxy resins (Kumar et al., 2012)

Figure 6: Nanoparticle structuring in the wedge-film resulting in structural disjoining pressure gradient at the wedge vertex (Kirtiprakash et al., 2012).

Figure 7: Nanoparticle structuring in the wedge-film (Kirtiprakash et al., 2012).

Figure 8: Schematic of oil detection by nanoreporters