Anhali Dhar '24

BY ANJALI DHAR '24

Cover Image Source: Wikimedia commons

Image 1: An ancient statue of the meditating Buddha from Pakistan Image Source: Wikimedia Commons Meditation was also a common practice in Buddhism, an early religion that emerged around the 6th century BCE. In canonical Buddhist literature, Sidhartha Gotama, or the Buddha, attained nirvana (enlightenment) under a Bodhi tree after profuse meditation (Encyclopedia of Global Religion, 2011). Today, there are three main branches of Buddhism: Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana. Theravada, when compared to Hindu tantric practice, has a more passive discipline. In the former’s practice of bhavana (meditation), one strives to attain awareness of samatha (calm) and vipassana (insight or enlightenment). Together, these two create a practice that brings the body to a state of sunyata (emptiness), after which it is ready for the “adsorption” of true, objective knowledge (Encyclopedia of Global Religion, 2011). The goal of consistent meditation is to relieve one of their sufferings. In Buddhist literature, this suffering originates from the false belief that one’s perceptions and thoughts are real. By meditating, the consciousness becomes aware that its thoughts and perceived reality are false, revealing the impermanence of its suffering. From this point, the mind is liberated from its anguish, as its perceived reality no longer predicts its destiny. The discipline of meditation traveled West in the late 19th century when Eastern philosophies began to be transcribed into English. It wasn’t until the counterculture movement in the United States that meditation centers were established with increasing frequency (Encyclopedia of Global Religion, 2011). In the modern day, a novel form of meditation has appeared; many

Western, contemporary meditators use mobile meditation apps that provide a wide array of guided meditations (Bostock et al., 2019). These apps provide a new way to tackle modern day stressors, such as work stress, which is often correlated with depression, anxiety, cardiovascular disease, and type II diabetes (Ganster & Rosen, 2013). Although their efficiency is currently under review, meditative mobile applications make the practice more accessible, perhaps providing ample fuel for a modern-day revolution of consciousness.

A famous Buddhist analogy describes the brain as a wild monkey that never sits still (Carr, 1993). The monkey is always engaged in some activity, jumping from one thought to the next. One might try to restrain the monkey to gain some peace and quiet. However, this is a short-term solution, as the monkey will be angered by the restraint and made more restless. Instead, one must teach the monkey to sit still using the discipline of meditation. After years of practice, the monkey will eventually learn to sit on its own (Carr, 1993).

As it is such a dynamic and wide-ranging practice, meditation has been defined in many ways. For this paper, the practice of meditation will be defined as cultivated, volitional attention on a specific object or repetitious activity with the goal to eventually alter one’s consciousness. The latter is important, as meditation is most successful when complete mastery of the mind is desired. It is important to note here that the purpose of mediation is not solely to attain enlightenment, but rather learn a new way of life that is superior to one’s current day-to-day habits.

There are many different types of meditation, as the practice is ancient and has evolved in many different cultures. Generally speaking, there are two main types of meditation: passive and active. The typical Western belief is that meditation evokes bodily states of calm and tranquility. However, as a practice, meditation aims to master the mind completely. Thus, the discipline must cultivate control over both the active and passive habits of the brain (Tse, 2019). There are many practices that focus on the cultivation of active control, such as yoga and the martial arts (Encyclopedia of Global Religion, 2011). This paper, then, will discuss the more passive form of meditation.

When considering passive meditation techniques, there are still many different types. This paper will focus on mindfulness meditation. Mindfulness meditation involves the cultivation of volitional attention on a specific desired object, such as the breath, to obtain mental tranquility (Encyclopedia of Global Religion, 2011). Whenever one loses focus of the breath, the user is advised to return their focus to the breath with gentle, nonjudgmental awareness. This practice increases one’s saliency of their own bodily states, decreases reactivity to external stimuli, and induces an acceptance of the fleeting nature of our thoughts and feelings.

As a note, these studies cannot be generalized to all types of meditation. Many meditative practices focus on the cultivation of attention and awareness, suggesting a common underlying neural circuit for all types of meditation. However, this generalization cannot be made without further research into each individual practice.

Although many different feelings arise during meditation, it is important to understand the volitional practice behind it; in other words, it is important to understand the conscious, intentional processes implemented to control the body and mind during meditation.

The volitional practice of mindfulness meditation can be described as a cycle between concentration and awareness, as shown in Figure 2. Concentration is the cultivation of volitional attention on a specific object of the meditation (like the breath). Prolonged concentration is preferred – however, distraction is often inevitable. After consistent practice, the ability to concentrate is enhanced, as pertinent brain regions are repeatedly used and conditioned, discussed further later in the paper.

The human mind is prone to distraction. This distraction manifests itself during meditation as a loss of concentration on the breath (or an object of the meditation). During this loss of focus, the brain becomes engaged in undesirable thought. It is here that awareness comes into play, as once the user becomes aware of their distraction, they can gently and non-judgmentally note the

Image 2: The volitional practice of meditation: a cycle between concentration and awareness. Image Source: Made by Dhar in Google Slides

mind-wandering behavior and return to the breath (the concentration stage). Although many novice meditators chastise themselves over being constantly distracted, the purpose of mindfulness meditation is to enhance one’s awareness of mindwandering through consistent re-correction.

In summary, mindfulness meditation flows between the volitional practices of prolonged concentration and later awareness of mindwandering that may arise during the exercise.

There are physical and emotional feelings that arise during the meditative experience as well. Of these sensations, one that is most easily recognized is the feeling of calm or tranquility. The user is unable to consider past or future events due to an active focus on the breath. This fosters an awareness of the present moment, allowing the mind to be still. The body follows suit, creating a physical and mental calm. This has been described as a “relaxation response,” where the body feels sleep-like yet the mind aroused (Lazar et al., 2000).

This increased awareness of the present moment also allows the user to review their physical body. It is difficult to observe one’s bodily sensations throughout the day, as one is constantly flooded with new sensory information and plagued with a myriad of thoughts. These thoughts, however, fade with meditation, allowing the user to note their bodily sensations. This cultivates an acceptance for bodily sensations by realizing our feelings’ impermanence, building on the idea that meditation alleviates suffering.

One prominent example of these bodily sensations is the feeling of pain, a discomfort often associated with suffering. Recent studies have shown how meditation could help those who experience chronic pain (Bawa et al., 2021). As one learns to accept pain rather than to fear it, they feel alleviated from their pain, as it is this fear that generates most of their discomfort. Although it is still in the early stages of research, the use of mindfulness techniques to treat physical and psychological disorders appears to have promising results.

When considering the neural circuitry that underlies meditation, both the neural basis of the practice and the long-term neuronal changes Figure 3: Hasenkamp et al.’s model of the volitional practice of meditation: an amplified cycle.

Image Source: Made by Dhar in Google Slides

To first consider the neural basis of the literal practice, one can look one can look no further than Hasenkamp et. al’s model of the meditative cycle, as shown in Figure 2. This cycle is very similar to that in Figure 1, accompanied by two more phases. To briefly explain this model, the sustained concentration stage is followed by “mind-wandering (MW)” in which the user becomes distracted. An “awareness of MW” occurs when the meditator realizes they have become distracted. Finally, there is a “shifting of attention” as the user disengages from the act of MW and returns to their original focus. This model represents the meditation cycle studied by Hasenkamp et. al in a 2012 fMRI study. Experienced meditators were asked to meditate for twenty minutes in the fMRI scanner, pressing a button each time they became aware of MW. This action gave researchers a timestamp which allowed them to match meditators’ brain activity to the various proposed stages of meditation (Figure 3).

The brain regions employed during the “sustained focus” stage were involved in cultivating volitional focus during the meditation. This concentration required both the dorsal and ventral attentional networks, whose associated brain areas are the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), the lateral ventral prefrontal cortex (lvPFC), and the basal ganglia (Raz, 2004). This concentration was also characterized by activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal regions. These areas have been previously implicated with the executive control network, a subdivision of the attentional networks (Hasenkamp et al., 2012). The executive control network assigns attention to a desired object. In the case of meditation, the executive control network must direct attention to the object of the practice’s focus. The observed, sustained activity of these regions suggests that this concentration

requires the constant reassignment of attention in a top-down manner. Top-down control is defined as a process in which upper-level brain areas (such as the prefrontal cortex) give directions and control lower-level brain regions (Raz, 2004). The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex then must constantly re-assign attention to the breath (in the case of mindfulness meditation) as a form of active rehearsal. This active rehearsal enhances attention, providing prolonged concentration necessary for this meditative technique.

During the “mind-wandering” phase, activity was observed in the posterior parietal cortex (PCC) and the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). These areas, along with the precuneus, are the primary brain regions associated with the default mode network (DMN) (Mason et al., 2007). The DMN is the resting state of the brain, active when one is not engaged in a goal-oriented task. It is the network responsible for our internal virtual reality, self-referential thought, and simulation of future possibilities, functioning as a planning mechanism (Mason et al., 2007).

It is then understandable that this network is active during the “mind-wandering” phase of meditation, as the meditator becomes distracted from the task at hand. This also supports the default mode network interference hypothesis, which states that activation in the DMN can emerge during goal-oriented tasks to disrupt one’s focus (Brewer et al., 2011). Considered on a neuronal level, active circuitry in the DMN can compete with task-positive neural circuitry. This neuronal competition may lead to the success of DMN-positive circuitry, causing distraction in the user. Furthermore, this neuronal competition makes sustained concentration difficult, reaffirming how the DMN is associated with deficits in task performance. Brain activity in the premotor areas of the brain was also observed just before the meditator pressed the button and became aware of MW. Therefore, there is a possibility that activity in the default mode network, be it self-referential thoughts or future plans, began to realize motor planning. Since this motor planning was founded in the false reality of one’s brain, an error detection network can suddenly realize the act of mind-wandering. This is manifested in the act of pressing the button, as the meditator is awoken from their stupor. This error detection network, otherwise known as the salience network, acts to keep the brain on task. It primarily consists of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and the cingulo-opercular control network (Raz, 2004). During this sudden saliency, activity in the bilateral anterior insula and the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex was observed as well. Both areas are associated with the error detection network as well, with the bilateral anterior insula primarily responsible for present moment consciousness (Hasenkamp et al., 2012). This is shown in its activity during the “awareness of MW” phase; as the brain suddenly realizes it has been distracted, the bilateral anterior insula becomes active, increasing current moment awareness. The primary role of this salience network is to detect the error that the brain is off-task and no longer concentrating on the breath. After this detection, the salience network must identify the distractor so that the executive control network can then disengage attention from this distractor.

Amihai, I. & Kozhevnikov, M. (2014). Arousal vs. relaxation: a comparison of the neurophysiological and cognitive correlates of Vajrayana and Theravada meditative practices. PLoS ONE, 9(7).

Image 4: The common brain activation of the default mode network, with notable prefrontal and precuneus activation.

Image Source: Wikimedia Commons

part of the executive control network, responsible for much of the top-down control of the brain (Raz, 2004). They are active during visual tasks, suggesting their necessity in goal-oriented activities. In particular, the parietal regions are associated with the disengagement of attention, allowing the brain to reorient itself and return focus to the breath (Hasenkamp et al., 2012). The activity of these parietal regions decreased during the later phase of “sustained attention,” indicating that they are not necessary for prolonged concentration. Instead, their primary function is to disengage task-negative attention and reestablish task-positive attention, characteristic of the “shifting attention” stage of meditation.

There have been a handful of studies that observe the long-term effects of meditation on the brain. One prominent project was conducted by Brewer et al. in 2011, which compared fMRI scans of both experienced and novice meditators. It was found that experienced meditators had a downregulated default mode network when compared to those novice meditators both during and after the exercise (Brewer et al., 2011). This supports the aforementioned default mode network interference hypothesis, as activity in the DMN leads to deficit in task performance. Experienced meditators had lower activity in their DMN because they frequently practice the act of staying on task (in the form of mindfulness meditation). This repetitious volitional practice rewired their brains, allowing them to decrease DMN activity and increase the executive network’s control of the brain. This supports the theory of neural plasticity, a concept in which the neurobiology of the brain changes during an individual’s life in response to an environmental stimulus. This reveals how volitional practices can change one’s pattern of thought. In addition to this comparative study, Brewer et al. (2011) also ran a functional connectivity analysis between areas of the default mode network and the executive control network in both novice and experienced meditator groups. It was hypothesized that in the experienced meditator, there would be increased functional connectivity between the default mode network and executive control network. The executive control network would become more active whenever mind-wandering was employed as a form of “monitoring for conflict” (Brewer et al., 2011). After placing a seed in the PCC, a primary node of the DMN, Brewer et al. observed increased connectivity between the PCC and the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) in experienced meditators, as well as increased PCC connectivity with the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC). Both the mPFC and the dlPFC are associated with cognitive control processes in the brain. This increased functional connectivity can be explained as a “coactivation,” in which activity in the default mode network predicts activity in these cognitive control regions (Brewer et al., 2011). As experienced meditators repeatedly practice shifting their attention from MW to complete concentration on the breath, the act of MW immediately elicits activity in the executive control network as a form of error detection. This practice causes these areas to become intricately intertwined. Experienced meditators can consistently detect the error of MW, therefore enhancing their attentional capabilities. This again supports the notion of neural plasticity, showing how the volitional practice of meditation can alter connectivity among various brain regions.

As mentioned before, meditation causes increased acceptance of bodily sensations. In fact, numerous observational studies of experienced meditators have shown drastic changes in parasympathetic body control (Benson et al., 1974; Lazar et al., 2000). To begin this analysis, consider the following physical example of autonomic nervous system transformation. Emotional states of high stress, such as fear or anxiety, are often accompanied by an increased rate of breath. Specific breathing techniques (like mindfulness meditation) require the user to volitionally control their pattern of breath. In doing so, one can elicit the emotional states associated with those controlled breathing patterns. Later, in situations of high stress, an experienced meditator can implement these techniques, slowing their breathing rate. This new breath pattern will trigger the more relaxed emotional state associated with it. The autonomic nervous system contains neurons from both the central and peripheral nervous systems. This system is made of two opposing networks known as the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems. The sympathetic nervous system is active during situations of high stress that require a “fight or flight” response. Physical responses of the sympathetic nervous system include increased heart rate, blood pressure, and breath rate. The sympathetic response is associated with a state of phasic alertness, in which the body can respond to stressful and demanding stimuli. Conversely, the parasympathetic nervous system is active during situations of low stress, in which the body elicits

a “rest and digest” response meant to heal and restore the body (Low, 2013). Parasympathetic responses are usually characterized by lowered blood pressure, heart rate, and breath rate. The parasympathetic response has no need for phasic alertness, as there are no demanding stimuli to be addressed. Rather, a different kind of awareness, known as tonic alertness, is employed during parasympathetic response. As activation of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems are mutually exclusive, tonic alertness describes one’s ability to respond to stimuli when the sympathetic nervous system is deactivated (Amihai and Kozhevnikov, 2015).

During passive meditation, the parasympathetic nervous system is upregulated. A “relaxation response” is then generated, as studied extensively by Lazar et al. in their 2000 paper. They define it as such: "Meditation is one technique that induces a set of integrated physiological changes termed the relaxation response and is effective as a complementary treatment for many diseases… The practice of meditation induces a hypometabolic state characterized by decreases in many physiological measures as well as by changes in EEG patterns. These EEG changes are different from those associated with sleep, and suggest that while subjects are deeply relaxed and have decreased peripheral activity, they are engaged in an active mental state requiring intense neural activity (1581). "

This relaxation response explains the aforementioned sleep-like yet energized conscious experience of meditation. Lazar et al. describe this state to be “hypometabolic,” suggesting that usual sympathetic activity is decreased in this meditative state. Although this decrease is typically associated with periods of rest and sleep, Lazar et al. note that this relaxation response differs from sleep states as the mind is engaged in “intense neural activity.” This implies that meditation creates a mental state unlike any other cognitive exercise known to humans. At a physiological level, this relaxation response has been characterized by a decrease in cardiorespiratory activity. This relaxation response also elicits activity in brain regions associated with arousal and autonomic control, such as the pregenual anterior cingulate, the amygdala, the midbrain, and the hypothalamus (Lazer et al., 2000). These elevated parasympathetic physical responses yet increased arousal suggests a form of tonic alertness is at play during meditation, in line with the relaxation response proposed by Lazar et al. (2000). In a later 2014 study conducted by Britton et al., it was found that passive meditation triggers activity in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC), the thalamus, the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), the inferior parietal lobe, the anterior insula, and the brainstem. These areas have been previously associated with tonic alertness (Britton et al., 2014). As a result of increased neural activity in regions of tonic alertness, neuronal synapses must have adapted, making these neural circuits more sensitive to stimuli than before, perhaps through long term potentiation. This adaptation would reveal how experienced meditators’ minds may change to allow one to enhance their ability to volitionally induce the relaxation response. This would also allow meditators to have more control over their own autonomic nervous system when compared to the neurotypical person, as their neural circuitry is more accustomed to frequent activity in these autonomic associated regions. It is important to note that this parasympathetic is specific to passive forms of meditation that cultivate the relaxation response. Those more active meditative techniques trigger sympathetic dominance rather than parasympathetic dominance (Amihai and Kozhevnikov, 2015).

This has been observed in Buddhist and Hindu tantric traditions, which involve phasic alertness rather than tonic alertness. Vajrayana meditation in particular is associated with a general increase in arousal (Amihai and Kozhevnikov, 2015). Those who practice Vajrayana meditation also were observed to have improved visual task performance when compared to a control group, suggesting that their attentional focus or phasic alertness had been enhanced, supporting this theory of increased sympathetic dominance (Amihai and Kozhevnikov, 2014). Heightened sympathetic activity has been observed in other studies as well, noted in physical responses such as increased metabolic activity and oxygen consumption (Benson et al., 1990). Although beyond the scope of this paper, these studies suggest that varied techniques of meditation that do not generate the relaxation response can trigger sympathetic dominance. This response allows the user to further master their autonomic control.

Today, consciousness is still a subjective experience; therefore, modern science has struggled to define it or find the neural circuitry in which it is realized. When considering its purpose, author Kristoff Koch (2004) emphasizes the importance of future and selfconceptualization. "Today, consciousness is still a subjective experience; therefore, modern science has struggled to define it or find the neural circuitry in which it is realized."

Image 5: The common physiological responses of both the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems, as depicted in most introductory neuroscience textbooks.

Image Source: Wikimedia Commons Consciousness elevates us from our ancestors by allowing us to create impressive simulations of ourselves in our reality and hypothetical future realities. We can attempt an act many times in our head and then choose the most beneficial action as a form of future planning. As Karl Popper, the Australian-British philosopher, once said, while the “uncritical animal” may be held up in “its dogmatically held hypotheses”, we humans possess the ability to “formulate our own hypotheses”, letting our misconstrued ideas “die in our stead” (1977). In this way, we differ from the “uncritical animal” as we possess the ability to create our own simulations of the future and let them “die in our stead” if they fail within our own minds (Popper, 1977). This ability reveals the true benefit to consciousness and how it elevates us from the beings from which we came.

First, note that consciousness is not realized in the neural circuitry of the autonomic nervous system (Koch, 2004). However, a being’s parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems can greatly influence their state of consciousness, as these systems’ underlying processes bring about physiological states integral to survival and daily life. Although these autonomic responses are typically non-volitional, practicing passive mindfulness meditation allows the user to consciously exercise their parasympathetic nervous system. These exercises volitionally induce the relaxation response. With consistent practice, triggering activity in these neural circuits can turn into a routine exercise, allowing the meditator to control their own parasympathetic response. In this way, if one were to suffer from an undesirable sympathetic response, the user could employ familiar neural circuits to trigger a relaxation response instead. This control over one’s autonomic system reveals the plasticity of the brain, and how through sustained practice one can bring subconscious processes under volitional control. Again, it is important to note that this autonomic control can also arise from a cultivation of sympathetic dominance as well. These forms of meditation can allow an experienced meditator to enhance the neural circuitry involved in sympathetic response and later volitionally call on those responses.

Consciousness is not solely realized in the neural circuitry of the default mode network (Koch, 2004). However, the DMN is responsible for our internal virtual reality, allowing us to

simulate hypothetical future realities. This ability is critical to the purpose of consciousness. The DMN is also responsible for many other mental faculties that make us human, such as creativity and imagination (Mason et al., 2007). In short, the DMN plays an important role in influencing consciousness, perhaps supporting the neuronal correlates of consciousness in which conscious percepts are realized.

So then, why is the default mode network down regulated in experienced meditators? When considering the purpose of meditation, it was noted that the practice brought one closer to enlightenment, or a better way of life. Experienced meditators can accept the false nature of their perceived reality and live without suffering. It appears this nirvana manifests itself on a neurological basis through the down regulation of the default mode network (Brewer et al., 2011).

The default mode network is integral to our consciousness yet is downregulated in individuals with a higher quality of life. From this discrepancy, the only logical conclusion that can be drawn is that there are certain disadvantages to the DMN. Many studies have revealed that serial mind-wandering is associated with lower levels of happiness (Bostock et al., 2019). A constant obsession with past or future events can pull one out of the present moment, creating a general feeling of dissatisfaction. Although capable of producing wonderful images and clever planning, the default mode network’s power is far too great. If one is not accustomed to it, they may fall victim to the DMN, in a sense tortured by their own mind. This torture manifests itself through the canonical Buddhist definition of suffering and can manifest itself as modern day affective disorders or negative patterns of thought. The DMN allows us to escape from reality, living in false realities in our heads. This disengagement from reality is especially prevalent in contemporary society, as the invention of modern-day technology has created a new influx of digital information. Constantly bombarded with sensory stimuli, modern minds are seldom asked to focus on one particular object at a time.

The ancient practice of meditation appears to be worlds apart from our own. This form of intense mental contemplation is rarely seen today, a longforgotten way of thought. However, considering the practice once again could turn the entire world on its head. One theory from prominent yogi Sadhguru is that our brains simply evolved quicker than we could manage. In a recent talk, the yogi considered that perhaps we simply lack a stable platform for our intelligence (Sadhguru, 2020). As we evolved too quickly, humans were unable to grow fully accustomed to the power of our minds, or the DMN in particular. Our own intelligence turned against us, manifesting itself in the mental sufferings we see today. Although these may not be cured by the practice of mindfulness, these meditative practices hold much potential for clinical treatment in the future. Meditation can alter the functional connectivity of one’s brain, overwriting past potentially negative habits (of serial mind-wandering, for example). This discipline transforms the way in which we perceive reality. If widely implemented, meditative practice taken seriously could jump start a revolution of consciousness. This revolution would be characterized by a new prioritization of thought, perhaps centered around a religion of practice rather than belief. If we as a population placed emphasis on being aware of the present moment, we could perhaps see the dissolution of modern-day stressors and their resulting disorders. Our own consciousness creates problems yet does not possess the power to realize its own error. Through meditation, we can realize the insignificance of our own thoughts, relieving us of our self-implemented torture.

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