Chapter Four
4.1 Appeal to Authority
Chapter Four: Fallacies
73
What is a fallacy? Simply put, a fallacy is an error in reasoning. A fallacy can arise for two reasons: (1) when we mistakenly assume that we have proven our conclusion when we have not, and (2) when we assume we have stronger evidence for the conclusion than we really do. Hence, when you commit a fallacy it typically means that you lack in some way the proper evidence necessary to support your conclusion. A fallacy does not mean that the conclusion is necessary false, just that the premises provided are not strong enough to show that the conclusion is in fact true. There are also fallacies that have faulty inferences at their base. Why should we study fallacies? First and most importantly, so that you don’t commit them. You want your reasoning to be sound and valid, and the surest way to meet these goals is to avoid fallacies at all costs. Second, learning about fallacies is a great way to correct biases in your own reasoning that are maybe too deep to spot on your own. You’d be amazed how much bad reasoning you learn from parents, family, and friends, your culture, or the city you’ve been raised in. This brings me to the third point, you want to learn fallacies so you can see the errors in reasoning others commit: Politicians, lawyers, newspaper reporters, bloggers, Wikipedia, etc. are just some of the list. Many times, fallacies don’t just happen on accident; they are often committed with some kind of intent or reaction in mind. Spotting them enables you to make clear and educated choices about who and what to believe, to prevent falling prey to schemes or false opinions, and will enable you to communicate more effectively with others.
4.1 Appeal to Authority (Latin: argumentum ad verecundiam) An attempt to prove a conclusion by an improper appealing to an authority, and this appeal is considered improper when the authority is irrelevant and/or unrecognized. Example: My mom says if I eat watermelon seeds, a plant will grow in my belly and I’ll turn green. Because my mom said it, it is true. It should be noted here that not all appeals to authority are faulty. When you are sick, you do visit your doctor and take their advice, and when you get into legal trouble you follow what a lawyer tells you. So, an appeal to authority can be relevant and proper when the authority you appeal to is: (1) recognized as having authoritative expertise in that area, and (2) if we ourselves lack the information, the experience, or cannot firsthand acquire the information required ourselves for the argument. To appeal to statements made by Buzz Aldrin when speaking about the moon’s surface is a proper application of authority. 4.2 Appeal to Force (Latin: argumentum ad baculum) Any attempt to make someone accept a proposition or argument by using some type of force or threat, possibly including the threat of violence. After all, threats do not establish truth whatsoever. Example: Company policy concerning customer feedback is “it’s either perfect (100%) or we failed (99% or less)”. Anyone who doesn’t support this will be fired.