12.4 The management of a degraded environment

l Poor knowledge about the environmental impact of human actions is a significant factor in many locations. l Poor management at both central and local government levels may result in problems that can be at least partially rectified, not being addressed. l Many degraded environments require substantial investment to bring in realistic solutions. l Civil war has put back development by decades in some countries. l Corruption and crime can also reduce the effectiveness of schemes to reduce environmental degradation.

At the most extreme, human activity and access can be totally banned, such as in Wilderness Areas, or extremely limited, as is usually the case in National Parks. However, in many areas it is usually necessary to sustain significant populations and rates of economic activity, particularly in developing countries. In these cases various types of sustainable development policies need to be implemented. Individual environments can be assessed in terms of: l needs – what needs to be done to reduce environmental degradation as far as possible without destroying the livelihoods of the resident population? l measures – what are the policies and practices that can be implemented to achieve these aims at various time scales? l outcomes – how successful have these policies been at different stages of their implementation? Have policies been modified to cope with initially unforeseen circumstances?

Tested

9 Define environmental degradation. 10 Give two reasons why levels of pollution have generally declined in the developed world. 11 Distinguish between water-stressed areas and water-scarce areas. 12 How has agro-industrialisation degraded rural environments?

Revised

Namibia is a poor and sparsely populated country in southwest Africa. (Figure 12.8) Environmental degradation and sustainability are significant issues in Namibia’s marginal landscapes. The government is attempting to tackle these issues and reduce poverty at the same time. The causes of degradation have been mainly uncontrolled exploitation by a low-income population and lack of management at all levels of government in earlier years. Namibia’s Communal Conservancy Program is regarded as a successful model of community-based natural resource management. The program gives rural communities unprecedented management and use rights over wildlife, which have created new incentives for communities to protect this valuable resource and develop economic opportunities in tourism.

NAMIBI A

The conservancy program began in 1996. By 2007 it had expanded to 50 registered communal conservancies, which now cover nearly 11.9 million hectares. This encompasses over 14% of the area of the country, benefiting more than 230,000 rural dwellers. An obvious sign of success is the significant increase in the numbers of wildlife in the conservancies after decades of decline.

The conservancies benefit from a number of ‘new’ economic activities including: l contracts with tourism companies l selling hunting concessions l managing campsites l selling wildlife to game ranchers l selling crafts

These activities are in addition to traditional farming practices, which were traditionally at the subsistence level. The diversification of economic activity made possible by the conservancy programme has increased employment opportunities and raised incomes. Support from, and cooperation between, a number of different institutions has been important to the development of the programme. Such institutions bring substantial experience and skills in helping conservancies to develop. Figure 12.9 shows the rapid expansion of the total land area under management of conservancies from 1998 to 2005.

100 000 120 000

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1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 0

Figure 12.9 Communal conservancies – total land under management, 1998–2005

Although rural poverty remains significant in Namibia, the conservancy programme has resulted in substantial progress, with income rising year on year. Rising income from conservancies has made possible increasing investment in social development projects. This has made conservancies an increasingly important element in rural development. Following the perceived success of community conservancies, the Namibian government has extended the concept to community forests. Establishing a community forest is similar to the process of forming a conservancy. This is a good example of the scaling-up process from one natural resource system to another.

Communal conservancies are legally recognised common property resource management organisations in Namibia’s communal lands.

It is easy to think that managing degraded environments means a substantial reduction in economic activity, when often what is required is a significant change in economic activity. Such changes, if properly managed, can both improve the environment and improve incomes for the resident population.

Community forests are forest areas where local communities can manage and utilise forest resources in a sustainable manner. The scaling-up process involves expanding effective programmes to reach larger numbers of people in a broader geographic area.

13 What are communal conservancies? 14 When did Namibia’s communal conservancy program begin? 15 By how much did the total land under communal conservancy management increase from 1998 to 2005? 16 Which new economic activities have helped increase incomes in communal conservancies?

1 (a) Examine the factors that can affect the demand for energy. (b) With reference to examples, discuss the environmental impact of energy production. 2 (a) What are the problems associated with the demand for, and supply of, water? (b) Discuss the factors responsible for the degradation of rural environments.

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