ATLANTIC TREATY ASSOCIATION
Volume 5 - Issue 6 June 2015
Countering Illicit Trafficking And Organized Crime Worldwide Illegal trafficking of all sorts poses grave problems to the international community, and especially to sovereign states as smuggling neither respect neither regulations nor borders. It is even more dangerous when considering that drugs and arms are the most illegally traded goods, therefore undermining the efforts of the international community to ban such traffic. The collapse of the USSR played an important part in small arms trafficking as weapons were stolen and illegally traded all the way to Africa and South America, and now used by local militias, spreading instability throughout the continents. Arms smuggling from the ex-USSR made it possible for deprived groups to start conflicts based on ethnical reasons, and to seize power by force. The smuggling of drugs and arms are closely intertwined with terrorism, as the revenues generated by those activities often feed acts of terror, both in terms of finance and means to spread such fear. With the resurgence of such attacks, more initiatives need to be put on the table to effectively prevent illegal trade.
Arms and Opium in Afghanistan (Photo: RT.com)
Contents: Countering Arms Smuggling Ms. Hanna Nykänen analyzes the international initiatives that have been put in place to counter arms smuggling, be it dedicated treaties, cooperation, border controls, etc. The negative impact of illegal arms trade is also explored, linking it to the development of terrorism.
NATO’s Impact On Drug Trafficking Ms. Kathryn Gudmunson explores the issues linked to drug trafficking, from the case of Afghani poppy producers, to the traffic routes and the demand. This article also details various measures that have been put in place to stop this illegal and dangerous trade.
- Flora Pidoux Atlantic Voices, Volume 5, Issue 6
1
Countering Arms Smuggling By Hanna Nykänen
T
his essay briefly introduces the problem of
to the treaty was long and filled with obstacles. There is
trafficking small arms. Trafficking and
no clear consensus among countries on how guns should
smuggling are used somewhat synonymous-
be regulated, even though the treaty itself neither has an
ly although it is acknowledged that they have some differ-
effect on domestic laws nor does it limit the right to bear
ences. First there is a short introduction to the treaties
arms.
that have been created to counter arms trafficking. After
The purpose of the Arms Trade Treaty (ATT) is to
that, arms trafficking will be explored, before moving on
regulate the international trade in conventional weapons
to some reflections on the role of the international organi-
such as small arms. The treaty sets international standards
zations such as NATO in tackling the problem. It needs
for regulating the international trade in conventional
to be noted that international treaties have an important
arms. It aims to reduce human suffering especially in areas
role in limiting arms trade and trafficking but they are not
where arms control is weak and where inter-state con-
a panacea for dealing with the new threats. International
flicts may occur. It also has the objective to increase trans-
organizations also have a limited effects on countering
parency and co-operation between its signatories. Last but
arms trafficking.
not least, it aims to promote international and
Arms Trade Treaty
regional peace with in-
During the last decades,
creased accountability and
important treaties have lim-
transparency. There are
ited the acquisition and the
coercive tools such as
use of the most destructive
sanctions to implement in
arms systems. The Conven-
the principles of the agree-
tional Forces in Europe
ment.
(CFE) Treaty, the Vienna Document and the Open
The Arms Trade Treaty was approved by the UN General Assembly on 2 April 2013 (Photo: UN)
Skies Treaty are all treaties
The treaty is an important endeavor to limit
that NATO regards as important in the field of arms con-
the trade of conventional arms but it has only been rati-
trol. One of the most important treaties that would set
fied in 69 countries, many of which many are member
standards and limit the international arms trade (at least
states of the European Union where the regulation was
according to the UN) was only signed last Christmas. A
strict even before the ATT. Out of the world’s top 10
treaty to limit the trade of conventional and small arms
arms producers, only half have ratified the treaty.
had been discussed for years, but it was only accepted by the UN Security Council on 23 December 2014. The way Atlantic Voices, Volume 5, Issue 6
2
International Arms Trafficking In the New
impact on several fields in society. First, arms smug-
Security Environment
gling is closely linked to terrorism and transnational
International arms smuggling is one of the threats that
criminal activities. It also has an explicit effect on
emerged after the end of the Cold War. It is part of the
mortality, crime rate and human rights. Small arms
new security environment among other threats such as
are used in inter-state conflicts, civil wars and gang
cyber-attacks, human trafficking, drug smuggling, envi-
fights. According to the EU Council, conventional
ronmental threats and fast-spreading infectious diseases.
arms cause the death of almost 500 000 people every
All these new threats have at least one thing in common
year, with Third World countries being the most af-
which is their unpredictable nature. States have tradi-
fected.
tionally had a hard time dealing with these issues since
Arms trade is closely linked to terrorism. Interna-
they often involve actors other than foreign states. The
tional crime is obviously not a synonym for terrorism
emergence of the new non-state actors like terrorists and
but the two are somewhat related. The main differ-
the transnational co-operation between them also point-
ence between international criminals and terrorists is
ed out the weakness of the traditional nation state. These
the goal of their actions. Terrorists wish to have a po-
new stateless actors pose a threat to the legitimacy of the
litical effect whereas criminals are interested in creat-
whole state – the inability to
ing profit. To put it simp-
protect its own territory
ly, terrorists need guns and
against individuals of groups
international criminals can
is a serious problem.
provide them with what
Gun trafficking is not as
they need. Therefore in-
new as some other threats
ternational crime organiza-
mentioned above but the
tions are co-operating with
problem rose to the policy
terrorist groups in many
makers’ and researchers’
areas. According to some
attention in the 1990’s. Globalization, with its inter-
Destruction of Small Arms during Disarmament ceremony in Cote d’Ivoire. (Photo: UN Photo/Basile Zoma)
scholars terrorism and international crime should be
dependency among states, is one example which links
studied in together in order to help to create a com-
closely to the arms trade and trafficking. The decade
prehensive view on the issue of arms smuggling.
was characterized by the rise of international crime and
Small arms are produced in nearly half of the
terrorism, which peaked on 9/11. Soon after the 9/11
world’s countries. The amount of small arms is esti-
terrorist attacks, the United Nations published Resolu-
mated to be around 550 million weapons, and it is
tion 1373, in which they expressed a deep concern to-
increasing steadily. More than 50 % of small arms are
wards arms trafficking, organized crime, drugs and ille-
owned privately and the rest is owned by military and
gal movement of nuclear, chemical, biological and other
police forces. There is no clear consensus on what is
deadly materials.
licit or illicit when it comes to arms trade. In general,
The smuggling of small arms and light weapons has an Atlantic Voices, Volume 5, Issue 6
arms trade is based on the UN’s charter in which 3
states have the right to export and import firearms for
operation. In their view, states only go along with the
individual and collective self-defense. In practice, arms
treaties if it is somehow useful to them and promotes
trafficking means “the international trade in conventional
their interests. The challenging liberal view emerged in
arms which is contrary to the laws of States and/or inter-
the 1980s and suggests that international treaties cer-
national law.”
tainly matter and enable state co-operation in situations
The possibilities of controlling arms trafficking varies
where it would otherwise be very challenging. Dr. Asif
greatly. First, the level of control depends on the legisla-
Efrat, an expert on arms and drugs trafficking, suggests
tion which varies greatly between states. Though there
that the level of compliance depends on the subject of
are contracts that set limits to the international trade,
the treaty. According to him, international institutions
domestic laws concern-
play an independent yet
ing guns are different
limited role against illic-
everywhere and so are
it trade. This has been
the attitudes towards
the case with campaigns
owning guns. Another
against drug smuggling
factor in arms control is
and money laundering.
the level of corruption of
The role of international
the border agency, mili-
organizations in small
tary, and police officials.
arms trafficking has also
The environment also
been
has a role in the ability of
which supports the real-
the customs officials to oversee the border. In
ist Sculpture against arms trafficking in front of the UN (Photo: Oxfam)
quite view
modest introduced
above.
South East Asia where the border between Thailand and
NATO’s role in countering arms trafficking can be
Burma, the jungle is so thick that it is almost impossible
seen as somewhat modest too. It was added to the Alli-
to detect illegal crossings or activities. There can be other
ance’s agenda in 2010 when the newest strategic con-
problems like political, socio-cultural or even a language
cept “Active Engagement, Modern Defence” was intro-
barrier that are harmful for countering the arms traffick-
duced. Arms trafficking is mentioned in the security
ing, which is the case in the U.S.-Mexican border.
environment chapter and it is linked to terrorism. It is
The Role Of International Organizations There has been a lively discussion among international relations scholars about the role of international organizations and their ability to facilitate co-operation between states. Like in international relations in general, there are two primary schools debating the subject: realists and liberals. The traditional realists have a doubtful view when it comes to the international treaties and state coAtlantic Voices, Volume 5, Issue 6
also mentioned that instability beyond NATO borders can affect the security situation in member states. According to NATO’s Strategic Concept, NATO is committed to conventional arms control and willing to “strengthen the conventional arms control regime in Europe on the basis of reciprocity, transparency and host-nation consent” which summarizes Efrat’s ideas on the role of international organizations in arms trafficking. NATO is only able to operate within its member 4
states, most of which are European Union member states who already have strict control on arms trading. When it comes to other countries NATO is only able to co-operate, and not act on its own. Where co-operation is concerned, NATO is working together with the United Nations and the European Un-
About the author Hanna Nykanen holds a Master degree in Social Sciences from the University of Helsinki. Her research interests are intelligence oversight and co-operation and the Nordic security environment.
ion. The European Union is providing education to border officials in countries where arms trafficking occurs, though it has been recognized that a consistent enforcement is highly challenging. NATO’s role in controlling arms trafficking outside its member states’ borders can also be questioned. Before the release of the 2010 Strategic Concept, there was discussion on the role NATO should play internationally. Some arguments were made that NATO should focus only on the member states and military issues and leave other areas for the UN, whereas some were demanding a broader view. When it comes to trafficking, the problem is mainly about how countries secure their borders; as long as there is no unified method to do so, arms trafficking will remain a problem. As mentioned earlier, arms trafficking, like other illegal activities such as human trafficking or drug smuggling is linked to international crime and terrorism. Researchers need a comprehensive understanding of trafficking in order to provide information to policy makers. It is vital that nation states co-operate, for which international organizations such as the European Union, Interpol, and NATO, to name a few, offer the
Bibliography Boris O. Saveedra. 2007. Transnational Crime and Small Arms Trafficking and Proliferation in Thachuk, K. L. (Ed.). Transnational threats: smuggling and trafficking in arms, drugs, and human life. Greenwood Publishing Group. David Capie. 2012. Arms trafficking in Mainland Southeast Asia. in Chouvy, P. (ed.) An Atlas of Trafficking in Southeast Asia : The Illegal Trade in Arms, Drugs, People, Counterfeit Goods and Natural Resources in Mainland Southeast Asia. London: I.B.Tauris. Dina Mahmoud. 2012. A Short Guide to The Arms Trade Treaty. Efrat, A. (2012). Governing guns, preventing plunder: International cooperation against illicit trade. Oxford University Press. Institute for Foreign Policy Analysis. 2010. A Comprehensive Approach to Combating Illicit Trafficking. pp. 3236. NATO. 2014. http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/ topics_48896.htm (accessed on 30th May 2015) Tamara Makarenko. 2004. The Crime-Terror Continuum: Tracing the Interplay between Transnational Organized Crime and Terrorism. Global Crime, 6:1, pp. 129145. United Nations Security Council. 2001. Resolution 1373.
appropriate fora. Co-operation, education and shared intelligence are the key words to tackle the problem when formal treaties can only provide a partial solution, as reflected by the limited number of countries who actually ratified the ATT.
Atlantic Voices, Volume 5, Issue 6
5
NATO’s Impact On Drug Trafficking By Kathryn Gudmunson
D
rug trafficking is an international
with Colombia and how that might impact drug
threat that continues to elude law
trafficking on the other side of the Atlantic.
enforcement agencies. Drug trade is
currently the most profitable illicit business worldwide, with hundreds of billions of dollars estimated
to
Globalization
be
changing
hands
annually.
has
enhanced
drug
trafficking
capabilities, with additional factors such as political turmoil providing ample opportunity for new market entrants. Further, the exploitation of established trade routes and unstable governments has allowed for growth in the drug trade, which is evidenced by the explosion of opium production in Afghanistan following military intervention by the US-led coalition in 2001. Political instability has also influenced the capabilities of cocaine traffickers in Latin America, in some cases leading to extensive political power by drug cartels. The transnational nature of these organizations has made it impossible for any one country to claim victory through purely national efforts, and it is rare for a country to make any headway in controlling the drug supply. This transnational quality also explains the involvement of
Drug Trafficking In Europe And Central Asia Heroin is the drug that causes the most concern in Central Asia. Along with other opium derivatives, heroin is produced from poppies grown almost exclusively in Afghanistan. Each year, more people die from Afghan heroin than any other drug worldwide. While there are two primary sources for heroin – the Golden Crescent (Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan) and the Golden Triangle (Myanmar, Laos, and Thailand), 80 percent of the world’s opium was produced in Afghanistan as of 2014. Although this percentage fluctuates from year to year, the percentage change is a greater reflection of the amount produced in Myanmar and the Golden Triangle, rather than a significant reduction in Afghan production. Opium production in Afghanistan has followed an increasing trend since 2001. Heroin from the Golden Crescent is mostly directed at the European, Central Asian, and Russian markets while the Golden Triangle has traditionally provided heroin to Australasia and Eastern Asia.
NATO. Though the drug trade does not traditionally
Afghan heroin, like most drugs, typically follows
fall under NATO’s jurisdiction, NATO forces have
established trade routes. These include the Balkan route
been tasked with countering drug trafficking as one
to Europe, the Northern route to Russia, and the
of few international politico-military organizations
Southern route through Pakistan. The Balkan route
working in drug sourcing nations. This paper
leads from Afghanistan through Iran, then splits in the
examines the role of NATO in combatting drug
region of South-Eastern Europe. Some drugs are
trafficking, both the complications encountered and
diverted to Western Europe through Greece and the
progress
to
remaining shipments take routes through Central
Afghanistan. It also addresses the NATO relationship
Europe. While Russia is the final destination for
made,
particularly
in
regards
approximately 20 percent of Afghan heroin, some will Atlantic Voices, Volume 5, Issue 6
6
continue on from the Northern route into Western
working in the drug trafficking field seems to be its
Europe. The Southern route, through Pakistan, has the
involvement in Afghanistan. While the goal of NATO
most branches, supplying heroin to South-East and Eastern
assistance there has been targeted towards counter-
Asia, Africa, and the Americas.
insurgency, and not the prevention of drug
As law enforcement efforts and market demands change, so do the trade routes. It has been reported by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) that the Balkan route is losing popularity with traffickers. While there are still large amounts of drugs seized at the end points of the Balkan route, the amounts of heroin, amphetamines, and precursors seized at the mid-points have decreased. This is potentially due to increased law enforcement
trafficking, the Alliance has taken on this role due to the financial support insurgents receive from the drug trade and the impact that Afghan drug production has on neighboring countries. NATO has been involved in operations in Afghanistan since 2001, and has headed the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) since 2003. The official statement from NATO Operation Plan 10302, is “Given the threats to stability arising from
activity
the drugs trade, ISAF
along the route, leading
will
to the formation of new
Afghan
divisions along the Balkan
counter
pathway. The routes into
indicating
a
narcotics
10302, 2005). This
already
basically
supplied by the Golden Triangle,
government
guidelines” (OPLAN
increasing in popularity, being
support
efforts, within agreed
Eastern Asia are also despite
also
outlines
NATO’s role as an Drug Trafficking Routes (Image: CIA)
possible weakness in law enforcement along the Southern route out of Afghanistan. The increasing production and export of heroin is thus a primary concern for the destination countries. Role Of NATO
assistance force to the
Afghan government, rather than a leader in combatting drug trafficking, but the international community has not based their opinions on NATO’s responsibility on the official statement. The ISAF was disbanded in December 2014, amid concerns that
NATO’s role in combatting drug trafficking is
Afghanistan was unprepared to deal with the return of
complex. Ultimately, the organization is meant to protect
insurgent groups. It was replaced by the Resolute
national security for its member states, which can involve
Support Mission, a NATO-led operation with 14
curtailing illegal activities; however, NATO is not a police
partner countries, which is meant to assist and train
force and is generally only involved in large-scale politico-
Afghan security forces to enable them to maintain
military operations. While drug trafficking could be
stability in the future. It continues to include counter-
considered a security threat, it is non-traditional, and thus
narcotics training for local law enforcement.
more difficult to fit under the auspices of NATO’s responsibilities. The primary argument for NATO Atlantic Voices, Volume 5, Issue 6
7
tension with the farmers, NATO has attempted to
Counter-Insurgency Counter-insurgency efforts in Afghanistan are
replace opium crops with food crops or provide other
closely linked to the drug trade and are complicated
compensation, but nothing has been as profitable for
by the variety of insurgent groups involved and their
the farmers as opium. This precarious relationship
equally complex involvement with drug trafficking.
with farmers has caused NATO forces to be hesitant
The Taliban, the driving force for the US offensive in
about widespread crop eradication, which has been
Afghanistan,
criticized by surrounding countries, particularly
had
a
particularly
convoluted
relationship with drug traffickers. In the 1990s, they
Russia, Pakistan, and Iran.
allowed opium cultivation and collected taxes from
In addition to the Taliban, other armed militant
farmers. In 2000, they changed course and declared
groups (some of which use terrorist tactics) also
opium
principles,
benefit from the drug trade both in and around
demanding the destruction of all crops. The invasion
Afghanistan. Al-Qaeda, a multi-national organization,
cultivation
against
Islam’s
by the US-led NATO
receives funding through
forces that took the
the opium trade in both
Taliban out of power
Afghanistan and Pakistan.
thus led to a rapid
Islamic militant groups in
expansion
of
opium
Central Asia have also
cultivation
in
2001,
benefitted as trafficking
when the anti-opium enforcement
of
the
Taliban was removed. This
has
become
more
prominent through the NATO and UNODC launch counter-narcotics training in Central Asia in May 2015 (Photo: NATO)
unintended
region. Rerouted drugs from
more
heavily
consequence then increased the funding of other
patrolled trade routes pass through Central Asia,
insurgent groups with the profits of drug trafficking.
funding insurgent groups. The majority of the drugs
After the resurgence of the opium problem, NATO
that pass through these regions are not seized, so
forces were compelled to initiate crop eradication
there is little impact from law enforcement efforts.
programs, which put the relationship between NATO
Corruption is also rampant, making national law
and the rural Afghan population at risk. The tenuous
enforcement attempts limited and often futile in the
relationship that NATO forces have with local
face
farmers is an additional complication. Though drug
operations in Afghanistan often do not extend to these
trafficking is definitely benefitting organized criminal
nations, but could be assisted by better control of the
groups and contributing to instability in the region,
drug market.
farming opium also provides work for millions of Afghan people, putting NATO in a difficult position. Attempts to eradicate poppy crops led to hostilities with locals, forcing people out of work, and leading some of them to join the Taliban. In order to mitigate Atlantic Voices, Volume 5, Issue 6
of
organized
crime.
Counter-insurgency
Counter-Narcotics Training NATO did make progress in the policing of drug trafficking due to cooperation with the UNODC. Through this partnership, training was developed to 8
assist local law enforcement in counter-narcotics
NATO cooperation, but also one with a difficult
endeavors, and activities were coordinated that led to the
history regarding NATO. While Russia was the first
interruption of drug trafficking routes and the
country to sign on to the Partnership for Peace in
confiscation of large seizures. In particular, a training
1994, the relationship has been fraught with tension
program developed with the NATO-Russia Council
over the years. Russia objected to NATO operations in
(NRC) made major progress in training local police to
Kosovo in 1998. More recently, NATO withdrew
handle drug trafficking, making them less reliant on
support for Russia following Russian military action
NATO forces and able to work better in their home
against Georgia in 2008. Although after each of these
countries. It also extended NATO assistance beyond
incidents the two entities would reunite via a common
Afghanistan, providing needed training to the nations
cause, the break that occurred in 2014 over Ukraine
impacted by the export of Afghan heroin.
has still not been remedied. NATO’s objection to the
The NRC Counter-Narcotics Training Project – created under the NRC with the assistance of the UNODC and the support of 21 member countries, plus Finland and Ukraine – trained 3,500 officers between 2006 and 2014. It focused on training law enforcement
Russian occupation caused a rift which not only led to the breakdown of the NRC, but increased hostility from the Russian government. Drug trafficking has become a key area of dispute from the Russian side of the divide.
officers from Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Central Asia.
Russia is one of the primary destination countries
Training included organized crime investigation, forensic
for heroin from the Golden Crescent and drug abuse
investigation, surveillance techniques, and working with
has increased exponentially in recent years. As a result,
canine units. Officers trained by the NRC were
the country has been insistent that NATO should be
responsible for some of the largest seizures in Central
doing more to control the drug trade. Since efforts
Asia, demonstrating the effectiveness of the program. It
thus far have been only marginally successful, and
was Unfortunately suspended in 2014. The project was
primarily in the form of training officers, Russia has
no longer viable due to NATO’s strong condemnation of
adopted the view that NATO is purposely not working
Russia’s military actions against Ukraine, which led to the
against traffickers and instead may be colluding with
suspension of cooperation between Russia and NATO,
them. Both Pakistan and Russia have claimed that
and the dismantling of the NRC. With the success of the
NATO officials are involved directly in trafficking
training however, NATO is looking for non-NRC
drugs from Afghanistan. These accusations reflect
methods to continue training officers and positioning
previous
counter-narcotics experts throughout the region.
regulation of the drug trade. Since the mid-1990s,
Political Complications The dissolution of the NRC was a major blow to NATO’s effort against drug trafficking. NATO’s complex relationship with Russia is only further complicated by the counter-narcotics effort, as Russia is one of the most affected countries by Afghan heroin and most in need of Atlantic Voices, Volume 5, Issue 6
anti-NATO
complaints
regarding
the
when NATO was involved in the Kosovo conflict, there have been accusations that US and NATO forces allowed drug trafficking to continue in order to fund resistance troops that would work for them. Similar claims that NATO only stops Taliban-related trafficking while tacitly allowing other organized criminal groups to continue are now being made in 9
Afghanistan, damaging NATO’s reputation in the
it has committed to assisting NATO by agreeing to
region. Iran has also joined in the complaints, but only
provide communications support. The agreement
to the extent of claiming that NATO has not been
with Colombia did not, however, occur without
doing enough to stop trafficking, rather than direct
controversy. Neighboring countries are concerned
accusations of collusion. In addition, there are
that this will open the area to NATO operations,
suspicions among the Afghan people that the local
leading to the occupation and bombing of their
government is corrupt and directly benefitting from
territories. The Colombian government has insisted
drug trafficking, further fueling the distrust in
that cooperation is only on communications, and that
political and military powers.
NATO will not conduct operations on Colombian soil; but this has not been much comfort to the
Future Endeavors As mentioned previously, NATO is still seeking a non-NRC partner to continue the counter narcotics training that seemed to be successful. The Alliance is also continuing programs of aid to farmers,
governments of Nicaragua, Venezuela, and Bolivia. Having issues arise before involvement commences does not bode well for the potential cooperation of NATO and additional Latin American nations, even if Colombia remains on board.
attempting to pull them away from growing opium without threatening their livelihood, as well as
Conclusion
continued training of Afghan security forces. Even
The role of NATO in the control of drug
though NATO troops have been significantly reduced
trafficking is complicated and has led to political
in Afghanistan, the Resolute Support Mission still has
opposition in both Afghanistan and Latin America.
a prominent presence in the country and is continuing
This raises the question of how much responsibility
to work against insurgents and drug trafficking.
NATO should be entrusted with in regard to the drug
In addition to the efforts in Afghanistan, NATO has also begun working on the obstruction of cocaine trafficking from Latin America. In 2013, NATO signed an agreement with the government of Colombia to allow the transfer of information for security purposes. As Colombia is an important figure in the cocaine trade, this agreement and future cooperation could lead to greater control of cocaine trafficking across the Atlantic. Although Colombia is not a NATO member, and does not wish to become one, it has supported NATO operations in the past. The Colombian government supported NATO’s interventions in Libya and Afghanistan, and has offered to provide air-to-air fuel transfers to NATO member countries. It is therefore not surprising that Atlantic Voices, Volume 5, Issue 6
trade. In the case of counter-insurgency efforts in Afghanistan, attempts at crop eradication have been met with not only resistance, but outright hostility from the local population. Conversely, reluctance to pursue crop eradication has increased tensions with Russia, Pakistan, and Iran, which are key countries in the fight against both drug trafficking and insurgency and would be useful allies. This puts NATO forces in a difficult position, with few options for appeasing all parties involved. Ultimately, the best plan of action is likely the one that has already proven effective. Training local counter narcotic officers in Afghanistan and its wider region has been supported by all countries and met with little resistance. While it has not stopped the flow of drugs from Afghanistan, 10
training agents has led to larger drug seizures, made nations
more
trafficking,
self-sufficient
expanded
NATO
in
controlling assistance
drug beyond
Afghanistan, and not caused additional political turmoil. With current political complications and anti-NATO sentiment,
implementing
and
expanding
training
programs allows for drug trafficking intervention without alienation. As NATO moves forward from the conflict in Afghanistan and potentially engages with drug trafficking control from Colombia, the importance of training and local support should remain a priority.
About the author Kathryn Gudmunson is a PhD student at the University of Leeds, studying the effects of drug decriminalization on organized and violent crime. She holds an MPA from Seattle University and was previously employed as a Legislative Performance Auditor for the State of Nebraska."
Bibliography Chossudovsky, M. (1999). Kosovo" Freedom Fighters" Financed by Organized Crime. Peace Research, 29-42. Iran blames NATO for increasing drug production, trafficking in Afghanistan. (2012, Dec 10). BBC Monitoring Middle East. Retrieved from http://0search.proquest.com.wam.leeds.ac.uk/ docview/1224528573?accountid=14664 Law enforcement; drug trafficking to remain unchanged after NATO withdrawal from Afghanistan - Russian Drug Control Service Head. (2013, Sep 27). Interfax : Russia & CIS Military Information Weekly Retrieved from http://0search.proquest.com.wam.leeds.ac.uk/ docview/1441303229?accountid=14664 Mikhos, A. (2006). Analysis: Afghanistan's drugs challenge. NATO Review. Retrieved from http:// www.nato.int/docu/review/2006/issue1/english/ analysis.html NATO refuses to cooperate with CSTO infighting drug trafficking - Bordyuzha. (2014, May 28). Interfax : Russia & CIS Diplomatic Panorama. Retrieved from http://0search.proquest.com.wam.leeds.ac.uk/ docview/1530016066?accountid=14664 North Atlantic Treaty Organization Release of Unclassified Version of Saceur Oplan 10302 (revise 1). IMSM-091 2-2005. December 2005 North Atlantic Treaty Organization. (2011, July). NATORussia Council Project on Counter-Narcotics Training of Atlantic Voices, Volume 5, Issue 6
Afghan, Central Asian and Pakistani Personnel. Retrieved from http://www.nato.int/nato_static/assets/pdf/ pdf_2011_07/20110802_1107015-NRC_CounterNarcotics_Project_en.pdf North Atlantic Treaty Organization. (2013, June 25). NATO and Colombia open channel for future cooperation. Retrieved from http://www.nato.int/cps/en/ natolive/news_101634.htm North Atlantic Treaty Organization. (2014, Mar 19). NATO and Colombia discuss future of cooperation. Retrieved from http://www.nato.int/cps/en/ natolive/news_108117.htm North Atlantic Treaty Organization. (2015, Feb 27). Resolute Support Mission in Afghanistan. Retrieved from http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/ topics_113694.htm North Atlantic Treaty Organization-Russia Council. (2012, Nov 19). NRC Counter Narcotics Success: 10 Years 10 Stories Anniversary Feature. Retrieved from http:// www.nato.int/nrc-website/en/articles/20121116-nrc -10-years-cnt/ Pakistan protests against reported role of NATO troops in drug trafficking. (2007, Jan 10). BBC Monitoring South Asia Retrieved from http://0search.proquest.com.wam.leeds.ac.uk/ docview/459914821?accountid=14664 Responding to Risk and Uncertainty: Understanding the Nature of Change in the Rural Livelihoods of Opium Poppy Growing Households in the 2007/08 Growing Season. (Report, Afghan Drugs Inter Departmental Unit of the UK Government, July 2008). Russia/Afghanistan: Russian drug czar links NATO soldiers to afghan narco-trafficking. (2010, Mar 29). Asia News Monitor. Retrieved from http://0search.proquest.com.wam.leeds.ac.uk/ docview/1242021482?accountid=14664 Russian official berates NATO over Afghan drug trafficking. (2010, Dec 08). BBC Monitoring Former Soviet Union Retrieved from http://0search.proquest.com.wam.leeds.ac.uk/ docview/816400592?accountid=14664 Sanchez, W. A. (2014). Geopolitical Considerations of the NATO-Colombia Cooperation Agreement. EInternational Relations. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2005). World Drug Report 2005. New York, New York: United Nations. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2010). World Drug Report 2010. New York, New York: United Nations United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2014a). World Drug Report 2014. New York, New York: United Nations United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2014b). The Illicit Drug Trade Through South-Eastern Europe. New York, New York: United Nations. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime Studies and Threat Analysis Section. (2009). Addiction, crime and insurgency: The transnational threat of Afghan opium [report]. Vienna: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 11
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