ISSUE 22
Science And Technology News And Views Magazine
In this issue, we examine the DARK SIDE OF SCIENCE
2 | SATNAV | June 2021
Issue 22
THE SATNAV TEAM: Chair Mia Wroe MXW858@student.bham.ac.uk Vice chair Daisy Cave DNC828@student.bham.ac.uk Treasurer Anna Shortt AES815@student.bham.ac.uk Secretary Charlotte Tomlinson CXT838@student.bham.ac.uk Layout Editors Luke Kurowski-Ford LSK709@student.bham.ac.uk Molly Sun-Wai MSX1199@student.bham.ac.uk Life Sciences Editor Katie Fegan KXF762@student.bham.ac.uk Physical Sciences Editor Anwesha Sahu AXS1603@student.bham.ac.uk Tech and Review Editor Aysh Yapa Copy Editor Lauren Malin LAM823@student.bham.ac.uk Publicity Officer Matthew Morris MCM823@student.bham.ac.uk Website Manager Shona Ferguson SJF082@student.bham.ac.uk
ARTICLES
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Dark ecology: a view of nature not ‘saved’ by science? Lara Williams The problem with polymers: plastic waste in scientific research Sophie Byrne Radium and corporate greed that glows Esme Morgan Living in a microbial world Sarah Lloyd Night-time in colour – the extraordinary vision of nocturnal animals Adam Manning Blood, Sweat & Tears: The Saga of Silicon Valley’s Greatest Scandal Rain Speake Concorde: How the supersonic dream came to an end Sam Lee Protests against the Thirty Meter Telescope – Is tradition preventing us from scientific discoveries? Oriana Pateiro Pacheco Time Travel: Tall Tale or Technology of Tomorrow? Harry T. Jones A message of warning to civilizations of the future Mia Wroe Spot-the-duplicate: the rise of fake images in science Katie Fegan The long struggle for full representation of women in science Daisy Cave Mount Paektu: the geological mystery on the ChinaNorth Korea border Matthew Morris It’s not rocket science: How effective communication is key to preventing future space calamities Charlotte Tomlinson
June 2021 | SATNAV | 3
Dark ecology: a view of nature not ‘saved’ by science Lara Williams dissects the theory of dark ecology, and how scientists should consider the impact of human interference when fixing ecological crises.
4 | SATNAV | June 2021
Issue 22 the human species have contributed to the same environmental problems we are now trying to get out of. ‘Dark ecology’ is a concept rooted in the works of philosopher Timothy Morton, which suggests we need a change in the way we look at ecology.
C
limate change is one of the most pressing problems to face 21st century ecosystems. Global warming and the loss of species is occurring at such a rate that the planet is accelerating towards what scientists are calling the “sixth mass extinction”. Advances in science have offered a deeper understanding of climate change, as researchers continuously look for ways to help us limit this ecological crisis we find ourselves in. However, with that, scientific findings have also brought about a much deeper and widespread understanding of how
exacerbate the problems that we are trying to fix? With scientific advances only going so far, dark ecology asks us to consider a world where humans do not try to control any further. Where science will not heroically ‘save’ the planet, reinstating humans as the species on top. “Only upon despoiling the planet have Dark ecology asks we come to realise just how much we us to sit with what we have done and are interconnected with it." accept it – science may not offer us a Dark ecology proposes that we way out of this mess. scrap the term ‘nature’ as we know it, This is because controlling as ecology is not about the pristine outcomes via science is not always as it non-human nature. Instead, Morton seems. The human species were not to claims that as a species we must know that the Neolithic Revolution become more ecologically aware of (starting ~10,000BC), when humans our coexistence with the non-human first started to become farmers, would world. Dark ecology is about lead to the practice of agriculture as we developing an ecological awareness, know it today. Advances in science that which Morton states as “the enable us to thrive as a species have awareness of unintended always had unknown consequences. consequences”. In other words, to Only upon despoiling the planet have acknowledge that you cannot be we come to realise just how much we aware of everything that you need to are interconnected with it. Morton be aware of at all times. states that “ecological awareness folds Dark ecology is said to be ‘dark’ back on itself in the Anthropocene. It because it forces us to think about our involves us being aware that we are interactions with the non-human involved in something that we did not world, causing Homo sapiens to sign up for [like contributing to global realise for the first time that they are warming] but which we are involved in, capable of acting on a planetary scale. nonetheless”. A full loop has been Human-induced alterations of the created, whereby scientific research planet are so extreme that we are now that looks to understand the changes of entering a new geological epoch – the our planet points to humans being the Anthropocene. Anthropos is a word culprits all along. Today we are not derived from Ancient Greek meaning only driving ecological construction, ‘human’ and this epoch is but science has made us know that we appropriately named as it is the first are. time in history that humans have Morton’s Dark Ecology outlook is been the primary cause of planetary nothing short of controversial, with change. Continued advances in claims of it interfering with science science and technology have been communication. It does, however, offer proposed as a promising solution to a different side of the coin to science, to alter human actions, and to reverse ecology, and to our interactions with some of the damage which has been the non-human world. done. But what if that is not the case? What if our actions further
June 2021 | SATNAV | 5
The problem with polymers: plastic waste in scientific research Sophie Byrne highlights the actions that researchers can take to reduce their contribution to the plastic waste crisis.
P
lastic waste has become a bit of a buzzword in recent years, and for good reason; it harms wildlife, and microplastics (small plastic particles produced when plastic breaks down) are found throughout the food chain. Scientists are often motivated by the positive impacts of their research, including improved human and environmental wellbeing. Many are therefore troubled by the eye-watering 5.5 million tons of plastic waste that are estimated to be produced each year by research labs. The Sars-CoV-2 pandemic is likely to have increased this due to heavy use of PPE and other extra precautions taken to reduce infection. In 2015, scientists from the University of Exeter published a commentary in Nature on how researchers should reduce plastic waste. They highlighted the need for increased sustainability in scientific research, particularly the life and medical sciences. But what has changed since then? I followed up with one of these researchers, Professor Mauricio A. Urbina, over email. Now based at the Universidad de Concepcion in Chile, Prof. Urbina studies animal physiology, particularly in the context of environmental pollutants. He said that becoming completely plastic-free isn’t currently feasible, however reducing our waste wherever possible is key:
6 | SATNAV | June 2021
“All solutions will have a footprint (plastic, water, power, carbon, and so on), but at least we are now open to explore these options”.
prevents recycling.
Packaging
It’s not just lab equipment and consumables which contribute to the huge quantities of plastic waste produced by Research materials Funding in research labs doesn’t go scientific research – packaging also very far when you have to budget for plays a significant role, according to every pipette tip! Being more mindful Prof. Urbina. Unsustainable packaging of laboratory waste disposal and using is an issue raised by Green Labs Birmreusable options when possible can ingham (a group of researchers based in therefore help save precious grant the School of Medical and Dental Scimoney while also helping the environ- ences who highlight sustainability isment. Most research council funding sues in research). An example of ex“...we need innovative solutions to cessive packaging can be allow more plastic waste to be seen here (a tiny bottle recycled and prevent its use in the containing antibodies next to a large box). The first place.” good news is that the comes from public money, so spending amount of packaging used for lab materials can be reduced, and where that it responsibly is important. A lot of laboratory plasticware is is not possible (for example where made of polypropylene, a thermo- sealed plastic is required to keep equipplastic polymer which is generally re- ment sterile) packaging can sometimes cyclable. However, contamination by be recycled. Companies swapping to laboratory chemicals and biological plant-based insulation (such as recycmaterial such as microorganisms often lable/biodegradable paper or maize pieces) for temperature-sensitive
Issue 22 products can reduce plastic usage and waste.
Progress Despite the alarming quantities of waste produced during research, it’s not all bad! Rapid progress is being made by suppliers and researchers alike, with groups such as Green Labs raising awareness and companies developing innovative solutions to reduce and recycle plastic packaging. Companies such as New England Biolabs now use recyclable, returnable insulation instead of polystyrene, while others allow polystyrene boxes to be returned and reused. However, this may not be enough – we need innovative solutions to allow more plastic waste to be recycled and prevent its use in the first place. For example, companies including Clean Waste Systems and HospiCycle clean and sterilise contaminated plasticware for recycling. In addition, advances in microfluidics and lab-on-a-chip technologies allow us to do accurate experiments using a fraction of the resources previously required. Closer to home, it is important that individuals and groups such as Green Labs continue to raise awareness about sustainable research practices. Researchers must then act accordingly to put their advice into action.
Future initiatives Based on information from Green Labs Birmingham and a panel of experts at
the 2020 Wiley Analytical Science Conference, the following steps can be taken to reduce the environmental impact of research: • Use reusable beakers instead of disposable plastic containers for measuring liquids • Use glass bottles that can be sterilised in an autoclave for making sterile media or culturing microorganisms • Reuse the boxes that equipment (e.g. pipette tips) comes in • Order from companies with recycling services and sustainable packaging where possible • Separate paper and plastic components of packaging and recycle them separately • Work towards Green Impact certificates • Encourage funding bodies to provide incentives for reducing plastic lab waste • Continue to raise awareness around the issue, including encouraging suppliers to adopt more sustainable prac-
tices While it is currently impossible to eradicate plastic waste in research, a combination of innovative technological and ‘holistic’ approaches can help us reduce our impact. These include changing the way we use and dispose of packaging and equipment in the lab, and companies improving the sustainability of their supply chains.
June 2021 | SATNAV | 7
Deck. Esme Morgan Deck.
transcends back in time to when raising awareness of the dangers of radium were non-existent
R
adium is a radioactive metal that can be commonly found (at very low levels) in almost all plants, animals, soils, and rocks. Radium was first discovered in the mineral pitchblende by Marie Curie. It has been used as an early form of cancer treatment as small doses implanted in tumours can kill cancerous cells. However, radium has since largely been replaced by the safer Cobalt-60. Purified radium and some radium-based compounds can glow in the dark. This property opened the doors for commercial use, a business opportunity that now has a body count. Discovering radium was a breakthrough that inspired a surge of research into radioactivity and allowed for leaps in medicine which have saved countless lives. Unfortunately, instead of using this progress for good, the United States Radium Corporation went on to ignore the health of their workers for personal profit. The company primarily manufactured glowing watches using a mysterious
“... slowly poisoning themselves..." paint they marketed as Undark, a mixture of zinc sulfide and radium. The watches were marketed to the
8 | SATNAV | June 2021
United States army during World War I and II as they allowed personnel to work in low-light conditions, potentially saving aircraft crew who could now operate planes with less light alerting enemy planes. Lives saved in the air came with the ultimate cost for those on the ground as the products were hand painted by approximately 70 young women. Workers were given strict instructions to point their brushes using their lips, slowly poisoning themselves with every stroke of the brush. At the time, the dangers of radiation poisoning were not well known. Unknowingly, the young workers were ingesting radium. Approximately 20% of ingested radium stays in the body after consumption, transported via the bloodstream, with a tendency to accumulate in the person’s bones. Radium emits alpha particles and gamma rays as it decays and over the years, this manifests as diseases such as leukaemia, raising the risk of cancer in every tissue in the body. As word spread of radium’s harmful properties, United States Radium Corporation’s management and scientists wore masks and gloves, used tongs and hid behind screens to protect themselves from radiation poisoning. There was no attempt to give the factory workers ingesting radium daily
any such preservation. Years of exposure to radioactivity had done its damage, but the real crime of the corporation was the insidious coverup. The dangers of radium were suddenly broadcast to the public following the deaths of five young women who
“... their corpses still radioactive." painted the radium on watches. They were diagnosed with “radium necrosis” – this occurs when ingested radium creates tumours on the jaws till the jaws disintegrate. Instead of protecting the women, medical examiners were hired to claim they had syphilis. Between a lack of public knowledge and malicious coverups, the girls were uninformed to the extent that they would purposely cover their dresses, hair, and teeth in radioluminescent paint to allow them to “glow” as they hastened their own deaths. Science communication provides a vital service to the public. Raising awareness of the latest scientific discoveries can prevent companies such as the United States Radium Corporation from endangering their workers through misinformation. Geiger counters still spike around the women’s graves where they lay, their corpses still radioactive.
Issue 22
June 2021 | SATNAV | 9
Living in a microbial world Sarah Lloyd examines the importance of bacteria in the origin of life.
L
All animals and plants owe their existence to this chance mutation in a single bacterium billions of years ago. Even today we rely on bacteria to ensure our planet is hospitable. Nitrogen, the most abundant gas in our atmosphere, makes up 78% of all the air we breathe and all organisms need it to grow. However, in its natural form, it is useless to both animals and plants. Instead, we rely on nitrogen-fixing bacteria to convert it into different forms that we can use, like ammonia and nitrates. As well as looking after our planet, bacteria also aid human survival. This statement may sound “It is becoming increasingly clear strange given the multithat our lives are inextricably linked tude of bacteria-borne diseases. However, of the with bacteria.” numerous bacterial spehospitable. However, within the hot cies on the planet, only around 150 are hydrothermal vents of the newly pathogenic. The rest are relatively formed oceans, bacteria were born, and harmless, and some have even been seen to benefit humans. life began. Trillions of bacteria reside within For over a billion years, bacteria continued to grow and evolve. As the our body. These bacteria have debacteria replicated, copying errors veloped a mutual relationship with huwithin their genetic code led to muta- mans: they rely on us for a space to live tions. One such mutation – believed to protected from the outside world, and have happened 2.4 billion years ago – in return they provide humans with created a new species of bacteria that many functions that we need but are could harness energy from the sun to unable to do ourselves. And not just split apart water molecules, releasing humans, bacteria have evolved an oxygen into the atmosphere. This pro- astounding range of intimate relationcess, known as photosynthesis, enabled ships with almost every animal on the oxygen-dependent life forms to exist. planet. ong before humans arrived on Earth, the planet was ruled by microbes. Although individually insignificant, when taken together, these organisms make a formidable force. It was bacteria that shaped the planet to create the current world we now live in; life as we know it would not be possible without them. When bacteria first emerged over 3.5 billion years ago, the world’s atmosphere was a far cry to how it is today. A thick, black layer of dried lava covered the ground, while sweeping gusts of acidic vapours swirled under an orange sky – in other words, very in-
10 | SATNAV | June 2021
Issue 22 The best characterized example of this mutually beneficial relationship, known as symbiosis, is seen in mammals that eat a high-fibre diet, such as cows. Unable to break down the tough cellulose wall of the grass they eat, they rely on bacteria inside their gut to do this for them, and then utilise the digested fragments for energy. A similar reliance has also been reported in humans, it is estimated that 10% of our calories are acquired through bacteria breaking down food that would otherwise be unusable. Bacteria have also been implemented in coordinating the human immune response and determining our susceptibility to certain diseases. They can do this both passively (by growing in large numbers, limiting space for pathogenic bacteria to colonize) and actively (by killing pathogenic strains and stimulating the immune response). A recent study conducted by researchers at the Brain-Body Institute, Ontario also suggests that bacteria can influence human behaviour. Mice grown to be germ-free show a significantly different response to stress, implying that bacteria are partially responsible for an animal’s mood. And these examples are just the tip of the iceberg! Scientists have only recently begun to realise the importance of the bacteria that live inside us. Referred to as our ‘microbiome’, it is likely that further research on this aspect of the body will reveal a longer list of roles bacteria play within us. Even our ‘human’ cells contain the remnants of bacteria – the mitochondrion, often referred to as the ‘powerhouse of the cell’ is responsible for providing energy for animals to survive. It’s believed to be the descendent of a bacterium that was engulfed by a larger bacterium bil-
lions of years ago, giving rise to the first eukaryotic cell. Put simply, humans (and all other life) wouldn’t be able to exist without bacteria. Recent revelations have begun to reveal the importance of these friendly bacteria. It is becoming increasingly clear that our lives are inextricably linked with bacteria, with these small organisms playing an incredibly important role in both our species’ past and present. We really are living in a microbial world.
June 2021 | SATNAV | 11
Night-time in colour – the extraordinary vision of nocturnal animals From hawkmoths to geckos, Adam Manning investigates the science behind colour night vision
O
ur sense of sight is something most of us take for granted every day, and we are one of thousands of species of animals that depend on sight to interact with our environment. However, some animals have evolved extraordinary abilities to not only see in the dark, but to see in colour too. Eyes generally work on the same principle in the animal kingdom. Photons of light that have bounced off nearby objects enter our eyes through the pupil and hit photonsensitive cells in the retina, located at the back of the eyeball. These cells then send signals to the brain, which interpret the signal as vision. Most vertebrates possess a dual retina with two types of photonsensitive cells: rods for dim light
particular wavelengths, such as red, blue or green light. By picking up on different wavelengths we are able to differentiate between the different colours of objects. However, in low light conditions, cones are no longer effective at detecting light and we have to rely on our rod cells. This hinders our ability to see in colour in the dark because we only have one type of rod cell that can only detect white
light. Although, this isn’t true for all animals. Researchers have discovered that nocturnal hawkmoths are able to differentiate between “...evolved extraordinary different colours in low abilities to not only see in the light conditions, when dark, but to see in colour too." our human eyes perceive the colours only as vision, and cones for bright light white. They do this by ‘summing’ vision. Depending on the species, the light signals they receive. All many of these animals have one animals sum their visual input to kind of rod and up to four kinds of interpret it, based on where and cones in their retina, but some have how often the light hits in their eye. pure cone or rod retinae. The eyes of It is thought that by summing the invertebrates work in a similar way, light signals they receive in low light, nocturnal hawkmoths are able but they possess different receptors. Cones are used in bright light to cut through background visual and are adapted for receiving signals and see colours clearly. 12 | SATNAV | June 2021
Colour night vision is also apparent in some vertebrates. Through evolution, nocturnal geckos have lost their dual retina and now only have cones which are sensitive to UV, blue, and green wavelengths of light. By not having rods, these nocturnal geckos can still differentiate between colours in dim moonlight and possibly even darker. The cones of nocturnal geckos can still operate in low light conditions because they have evolved to be larger and more rodlike, allowing them to act more similarly to the rods in other vertebrates' eyes while still picking up on colours. By being able to see colour in low light conditions, nocturnal
Issue 22
geckos, hawkmoths, and other animals are able to differentiate objects in their surroundings at night. These animals are better equipped to navigate their environment, find food sources or avoid predators. Many other unstudied animals may also have this incredible ability and gives us a fascinating taste of how evolution influences even the smallest details of life, even if most of us take it for granted every day.
June 2021 | SATNAV | 13
John Carreyou, of The Wall Street Journal, first broke the story in 2015. Thanks to information given by Theranos whistleblowers, it was revealed that the establishment had not been running its own technology when conducting the majority of its blood tests. Instead, it had been relying on commercially-available machines from companies such as Siemens. In the ocRain Speake dives into a company that based its casions where the Edison was used, the results presented were found to be radgroundbreaking technology on lies. ically different from those produced by existing tech on the market. Thus, any ilicon Valley is a region nestled as we know it. This pioneering piece of technology results sent out to real patients were all in the southern part of the San Francisco Bay Area in Northern was the brainchild of Founder and fundamentally incorrect. To add furCalifornia. It serves as a global hub for CEO, Elizabeth Holmes. Saddened by ther dismay, former employees also reemerging scientific breakthroughs and her uncle’s death from cancer, Holmes vealed that the culture was filled with disruptive technology and thus, is wanted to develop a way to detect dis- secrecy and intimidation. Continuous widely known as the epicentre of in- eases earlier. As a result, she dropped lies were fed to members of the board, novation. The area is home to some of out of Stanford in her sophomore year and those who tried to raise concerns the world’s most influential companies, to found the company using her tuition were simply ignored or fired by boasting residents that include Apple, money. The combination of the Holmes herself. At first, these shocking allegations Facebook, and Google. As the centre of device’s outstanding claims paired with research and development, the Valley Holmes’ notable charisma led to the were vehemently denied. However, is also the birthplace of many exciting influx of numerous multi-million dol- FDA investigations ensued and destart-ups which encompass a multitude lar investments. By 2014, Theranos was clared that the company had been built of different industries. These industries valued at a whopping USD 9 billion, on nothing but a complete and utter can range from artificial intelligence making Holmes the world’s youngest facade. In 2018, Holmes eventually stepped down as CEO and fintech, to blockchain and medical “...the company seemed to be and was subsequently technology. In a world where individucharged with criminal als are becoming increasingly more offering a device that could conscious about their health, the potentially transform healthcare as fraud and conspiracy. Her trial is expected to growth of the latter market shows no we know it.” take place in March sign of deceleration any time soon. In the first half of the last decade, a self-made female billionaire at the age 2021 where she possesses the potential medical technology start-up known as of 31. Donning an identical black tur- to face up to 20 years in prison. Theranos is a cautionary tale of Theranos, became one of Silicon Val- tleneck, Holmes was frequently hailed ley’s most promising rising stars. Its as the next Steve Jobs and was similarly what can happen when ‘over-hype’ ground-breaking invention, the Edison perceived as a celebrity within tech mentality creeps into areas that require machine, claimed to perform a series of circles. Due to her success, she went on much more regulation than software. diagnostic tests from the comfort of to grace the covers of Forbes and For- Trial and error approaches conducted your own home. While existing tech- tune, and was even named one of on human individuals can be particunologies require at least one vial of Time’s “100 Most Influential People” of larly harmful in sectors such as medicine. In summary, these events blood, Theranos professed capabilities 2015. To a common outsider, Holmes and demonstrate the realities of fraud and in conducting complex genetic analyses and hormone level measurements from Theranos appeared to be flying high deception within the science and techa simple prick of the finger. Fast, con- with limitless boundaries. The only nology community. They also portray venient, and inexpensive, the company problem? This supposedly revolution- the importance of publishing peer-reseemed to be offering a device that ary device that was projected to change viewed studies, and provide a clear testament of what can happen if loopholes could potentially transform healthcare the world, did not actually work. in the system are exploited by superfi14 | SATNAV | June 2021 cial claims and audacious lies.
Blood, Sweat & Tears: The Saga of Silicon Valley’s Greatest Scandal
S
Issue 22
June 2021 | SATNAV | 15
Concorde: How the supersonic dream came to an end Sam Lee relives the crash of Air France and what this did to the reputation of Concorde
T
“…45 90 you have flames behind you.” “45 90 you have strong flames behind you…” “We’re trying for Le Bourget.” . . . . . . . . “The Concorde has crashed near Le Bourget, Fire Service Leader”
16 | SATNAV | June 2021
he crash of Air France Flight 4590 on the 25th of July 2000 marked the beginning of the end for, arguably, the world’s only successful supersonic passenger airliner. But what caused the tragic accident in Paris, and how did this lead to the premature retirement of Concorde just three years later? Flight 4590, chartered to take 100 tourists to New York, was running late due to maintenance issues. At 4:34pm Concorde finally began its taxi towards the runway, and by 4:42pm the aircraft was lined up on the runway and ready for take-off. Accelerating rapidly, the aircraft passed “V1”- the point beyond which it would be impossible to stop before the end of the runway. Four seconds later flames erupted from underneath the wing. Unable to stop, Concorde slowly heaved into the air. Moments later the aircraft began to pitch up, roll to the left and rapidly lose height. The flight of Air France 4590 lasted less than 70 seconds. All 109 people onboard, and four on the ground, were killed. Accident investigators began to trace Concorde’s movements and happened to stumble across a 40cm-long metal strip lying on the runway. Could this strip of metal be responsible for bringing down the 190-tonne aircraft? The investigation revealed that the strip of metal was shed by another aircraft that had used the runway only minutes before Flight 4590. As Concorde’s tyres hit the metal, a chunk
Issue 22
transatlantic business customers and with declining passenger numbers following 9/11, Concorde was flying virtually empty. Combined with rising maintenance costs, the economic forces became all too great. In April 2003 retirement was announced, and on the 26th of November 2003, Concorde landed for the final time. A heady mix of cutting-edge engineering and artistic elegance, Concorde represented a "Moments later the aircraft step-change in civil began to pitch up, roll to the left aviation. Flight 4590 had and rapidly lose height." irreversibly damaged the aircraft’s reputation; pride structure and the flying controls. and prestige could no longer shield it from economic reality. Eye-wateringly Disaster was inevitable. In the months following the crash, expensive to operate, deafeningly loud, British Airways and Air France and comparatively cramped - its grounded their Concordes whilst safety supersonic speed was now traded for modifications were made, including increased comfort. Yet Concorde still fitting more resistant tyres and Kevlar inspires; it symbolises the desire to lining to the fuel tanks. Finally, after push the boundaries of science and the £30 million refurbishment, a technology, to redefine what is British Airways Concorde safely possible. Nearly two decades on, touched down after the first test flight nothing has come close to it and it’s since the crash. The date was the 11th unlikely that we will see such an aircraft in the skies ever again. of September 2001. The events of that day cost Concorde many of its regular of rubber was sliced off and sent upwards, impacting a fuel tank. Due to overfilling of the tank, instead of punching a hole in the metal, a shockwave was created which blew out a section of the tank. Severed electrical cables ignited the torrent of fuel, and flames soon erupted from the left wing. Limping into the air, with both lefthand engines losing power, the fire began to melt through the wing
References
• Image [unique historic image]: https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ File:Concorde_Air_France_Flight_4590_fire_o n_runway.jpg • https://www.bea.aero/docspa/2000/fsc000725a/pdf/f-sc000725a.pdf • https://www.heritageconcorde.com/af-4590concorde-crash • http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1537086.stm • https://aviation-safety.net/database/ record.php?id=20000725-0
June 2021 | SATNAV | 17
Protests against the Thirty Meter Telescope – Is tradition preventing us from scientific discoveries? Oriana Pateiro Pacheco explores the fine line dividing the blend of science and advancement from culture and community.
C
ulture and history are to be preserved, protected and respected - even if they may get in the way of progress. The long-lasting protests in Hawaii against the construction of the Thirty Meter Telescope is a striking current example of the fact that science and tradition can’t always go hand in hand. Mauna Kea is a dormant volcano in the island of Hawaii that is home to several space observation facilities. The summit, 13,796ft above sea level, is over the inversion layer, keeping most clouds below the observatories ensuring the air is dry and free of atmospheric pollution. The top atmosphere is exceptionally stable, and the very dark skies resulting from Mauna Kea's distance from city lights minimizes light pollution and makes the volcano ideal for submillimetre and infrared astronomy. It was first selected as the location for the UH88 (University of Hawai'i 88-inch (2.24-meter) telescope) in 1968, and since then 11 other projects have been added to the peak of the natural monument. As far as the Hawaiian Chamber of Commerce explains, the astronomical development of Mauna Kea would provide an economical growth favourable for natives. However, an increasing percentage of the population has expressed their disapproval of the space
18 | SATNAV | June 2021
projects in the sacred volcano, which according to their tradition is home to Wākea, the sky god. Their discontent became more clear than ever since October 7th 2014, after the confirmation of the construction of the TMT (Thirty Meter Telescope) in Hawaii. In order to sabotage the project, protesters sited at an elevation of 6,632ft in a “Kūpuna tent”, they strategically placed themselves to block any access to roads up the mountain and stop construction vehicles from reaching the summit. This resulted in the evacuation of the already functioning observatories personnel and the arrest of 33 protestors. In the course of almost 7 years, natives have been able to gain the interest of the global gaze as affluent celebrities such as Jason Momoa (known for his role in Aquaman) and Dwayne “The Rock” Johnson have openly claimed their support to the protests and travelled to Mauna Kea to participate in them. The Supreme Court of Hawaii seemed to stand against the telescope when TMT’s building permits were invalidated on December 2nd 2015. The astronomical corporation had to remove all of the construction equipment and vehicles from the summit. However, the tables turned when the Supreme Court of the State of Hawaii ultimately approved the permit following a lengthy contested hearing case in
Issue 22 October, 2018. Despite years of delay, the project is still alive and expected to be completed by 2027 as said by the TMT International Observatory LLC, also known as the TIO. The TIO is a non-profit international partnership between the California Institute of Technology, the University of California, the National Institutes of Natural Sciences of Japan, the National Astronomical Observatories of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the Department of Science and Technology of India, and the National Research Council (Canada). As well as being the designer and the developer of the telescope, the TIO will also run the TMT operations once it is completed. TMT is designed to provide unparalleled resolution with images more than 12 times sharper than those from the Hubble Space Telescope. This will provide new observational opportunities in every field of astronomy and astrophysics. As read on the TIO’s website, “Its adaptive optics and spectroscopic capabilities will allow astronomers to explore the mysterious period in the life of the universe when the first stars and galaxies were formed, providing information about the nature of "first-light" ob-
TMT is something that our ancestors wouldn't just jump on and embrace” says Dr. Paul Coleman, astronomer and professor at the University of Hawaii. As for today, the debate still sits in the air on whether or not Mauna Kea should be removed from the list of po“...science and tradition can’t always tential astronomical observation sites. While go hand in hand.” the sole thought of construction projects in the The TMT International Observat- mountain represents a violation of inory’s team have also shared their stance digenous rights for some activists, locregarding the protests – “TMT has dili- als and even scientists, many others gently followed the state’s laws, proced- believe that scientific and technologicures, and processes in its efforts to al advances outweigh the cultural loss. build TMT on Maunakea”. Since the The discussion mimics and reminds us first steps of the project, the TIO prom- of the frequent battle between our past ised to engage with the community and and our future, and the responsibility give back to the island by funding that scientists have on being mindful STEM education through the THINK of the repercussions of their unlimited Fund at Hawaii Community Founda- curiosity in other areas of knowledge tion and the Pauahi Foundation. and ethics. Taking into account the enormous impact the TMT project could have, some locals also argued against the protesters and gathered in support of the TMT project outside the Hawaii State Capitol in Honolulu in July, 2019. "Hawaiians are just so tied to astronomy I cannot, in any stretch of the imagination, think that jects and their effects on the universe's evolution”. Its applications include the study of star and planet formation and the characterization of the properties of exoplanets - this has been an increasingly popular topic of research in recent years.
June 2021 | SATNAV | 19
Time Travel: Tall Tale or Technology of Tomorrow? Deck. Harry T. Jones explores the establishment
of time travel in
fiction and fact.
P
eople assume that time is a strict progression of cause to effect, but actually, from a non-linear, non-subjective viewpoint, it’s more like a big ball of wibbly wobbly, timey wimey stuff.” – The Doctor These words were famously uttered by David Tennant’s Tenth Doctor, but they do little to clarify the physics of space-time and how we may use such knowledge to travel through time. While open to interpretation, my partial understanding of the phrase is that from a perspective outside our own experience of space-time, different points in time may be viewed simultaneously rather than one after another, or sequentially in the order in which they occur (as we experience them). So, could we use the underlying principle of such a perspective, that the past and future tangibly exist in a form we just can’t access yet, to travel into another time? Although the concept of time travel has been implied in works dating as far back as the 9th century BCE (namely in the Hindu Mahabharata), it was only popularised in 1895 with H.G. Wells’
20 | SATNAV | June 2021
traveller starts to slow down, meaning that time appears to move more quickly for everything else. This idea is termed ‘velocity time dilation’. Assuming we could reach anywhere near such great speed, this could be one way of travelling into the future more quickly than our current rate of one second per second. German mathematician Hermann Minkowski later used Einstein’s theory to link the three dimensions “... travelling into the past is of space to time, a fourth less probable than travelling to dimension, in the single fourdimensional concept of spacethe future" time. This model of the Universe is the one we use specific circumstances could enable today, and it led into the second part of time travel. Einstein’s relativity theory in 1915: Albert Einstein was amongst the general relativity. This theory views first to scientifically discuss how time gravity as a warping of space-time could be experienced differently. His created by massive objects, such as 1905 theory of special relativity planets. The greater an object’s mass, proposed that measurements of space the stronger the gravity. The stronger and time vary, depending on the the gravity, the more slowly time relative speed at which the measurer is moves (compared to further away from travelling. The theory posits that as a the gravity source). This effect is traveller’s speed approaches the speed termed ‘gravitational time dilation’. It of light (299,792 km/s), time for the explains why travelling past objects novel The Time Machine. This story not only exemplified the use of a machine to travel through time, but also demonstrated the ability to move forward and backward in time with intent. Time machines have since been ingrained in pop culture, including icons such as the TARDIS (Doctor Who) and the DeLorean (Back to the Future). Such machines are fictional, but some theoretical physicists postulate that
Issue 22
with strong gravitational fields causes a relative slowing in time for the traveller, as seen in the film Interstellar, where one hour on a planet near a black hole equalled seven Earth years. Einstein theorised another temporal disruption in the form of wormholes: folds in space-time that produce a tunnel-like shortcut between two different points in space-time. Unlike black holes, wormholes have not been observed in space hence remain theoretical to this date. Even if it were possible to reach/create a wormhole for time travel, there remains the problem of creating a machine to survive the journey through one, as well as the uncertainty of when and where it may lead. While theoretically possible through a traversable wormhole, travelling into the past is less probable than travelling to the future. Moving faster than light would produce the effect of moving backwards in time, but it is physically impossible for an object to exceed the speed of light (the universal speed limit) as that would
require infinitely high energy. Hypothetical particles called tachyons are believed to always travel faster than light, so perhaps they could be harnessed to send signals, if not people, back in time? Such particles warrant further investigation, as does a longsought unified theory that couples general relativity with quantum mechanics – a link that may reveal new insights into space-time. The logistical impacts of backward time travel remain contentious. Most famously, the ‘grandfather paradox’ theorises someone travelling back in time then killing their young grandfather, averting the traveller’s mother/father’s birth, thus preventing the traveller from ever existing. If the traveller never existed, how could they have killed their grandfather? Stephen Hawking cited this paradox as evidence of backward time travel being impossible, in a rule termed the ‘chronology protection conjecture’. Other theories suggest the Universe may somehow compensate for the grandfather’s death, ensuring the time traveller’s existence, or that the death creates a new timeline that branches
off to create a parallel Universe, as suggested in Avengers: Endgame. In conclusion, time travel is likely to remain confined to works in theoretical physics and science-fiction for the foreseeable future, but is a subject that will undoubtedly be further explored. Time is an intriguing concept, yet its ‘wibbly wobbly’ nature (through space-time disturbances/ dilations) may have applications that help mankind travel throughout the stars.
June 2021 | SATNAV | 21
A message of w civilizations of
Mia Wroe inspects how messa communicated to those beyo
O
ver 10 years of printing, SATNAV has a significant backlog of brilliant science communication from our members through the years. As diverse in topic and form as our backlog may be though, it is difficult to believe that any of it will be understandable to the human societies that may find them 10,000 years from now. So how do you produce science communication that will withstand time? How can you communicate science without knowing anything about your audience? This is the exact problem faced by nuclear waste disposal scientists and officials today. As we move towards a clean, green future, many are looking increasing towards nuclear power as the solution to the energy transition crisis. In exchange for it’s zero emission energy supply, nuclear power produces nuclear waste – highly radioactive, highly dangerous by-products that remain highly radioactive and highly dangerous for 10,000 to 100,000 years. Even
22 | SATNAV | June 2021
Issue 22
warning to f the future
ages of doom can be ond our time. short periods of exposure to high-level nuclear waste can be fatal. Currently, the favoured method of disposal for high-level waste is burial in deep geological depositories. But what would happen if we were to lose the knowledge of what these depositories hold? And if we were to lose the languages that the warning signs are written in? It is the task of nuclear semiotics to answer these questions, and to come up with ways of communicating a message of warning through time. The Sandia National Laboraties recommended in 1993 that any such message used to convey the presence of such deadly material should be categorised into four levels of increasing complexity and information density. Level one indicates that something man-made is present in a specific location, while level two communicates that it is dangerous. What, why, and when are included in level three information, while level four is reserved for detailed records, diagrams and numerical data. There are then three dominant proposed methods for communicating this message – written message, physical marker, and cultural legacy. The form that SATNAV members are likely the most comfortable with, written message, is the least likely to be successful. Writing is the most likely to decay, alongside the languages that are spoken today. While written message is per-
posefully manufactured to protect the future. So, what is the best way to communicate this message of danger? The Preservation of Records, Knowledge and Memory Across Generations Initiative was set up by the Nuclear Energy Agency to explore this exact issue. Over the eight years of the Agency’s activity, it took into consideration all of the above proposals and more, and concluded in its 2019 final report that a combination of techniques would be the best way to safeguard such a vital message. However, it also stated that it would be better to integrate depositories into future societies, rather than attempt to deter the inevitable curious explorers of the future. Unconventional science communication is becoming more and more important as science progresses on Earth and expands into space. Already society is beginning to think about communicating with civilizations that aren’t even human and how to convey “How can you communicate science messages without writing, without images, without knowing anything about without the senses that humans so deeply rely your audience?” on. Hopefully, the mesFinally, purpose-tailored cultural sages we send to space will not be about legacies could be integrated into mod- imminent doom and danger, and we ern culture and may stand as a lasting will not be calling out to the universe deterrent. This option has had possibly that ‘the danger is still present, in your the most ‘creative’ suggestions, includ- time, as it was in ours.’ ing the ‘Ray Cat Solution,’ where cats would be genetically engineered to change colour in response to high radiation levels and then be introduced into society to act as domestic Geiger counters! Linguist Thomas Sebok suggested an ‘atomic priesthood’ who would exist as standing guardians to depositories and use rite and ritual to communicate danger to civilizations to come. As inventive and memorable as these proposals are, there is no way to prevent the evolution or erasure of any aspect of culture, including those purhaps the only way to convey level four knowledge, and a number of proposed messages have been translated into a series of modern languages, the limitations of this format mean that it cannot be relied on to protect those to come from the dangers below. A number of physical markers have been suggested, many of which bring to mind stories of science fiction and horror. Various suggestions relating to covering the land above deep geological depositories with ‘fields of spikes’ have been made with the intention to create a landscape that would use fear as a deterrent to future explorers. Some have also suggested using concrete to create an area of uninhabitable, unfarmable land around the depository, so as to prevent settlement and development that could disturb the waste. Proposals for physical markers to deter future populations are numerous and diverse, but ultimately all run the risk of actually acting as an attraction to explorers of the future.
June 2021 | SATNAV | 23
Spot-the-duplicate: the rise of fake images in science Katie Fegan discusses the impact of image manipulation in academic papers, and the whistleblowers fighting for scientific integrity.
M
ove over, Sherlock: the science detectives are in town. Bad science threatens the credibility of academic research. Whether you are an astrophysicist or a microbiologist, chances are you have stumbled across a research paper containing fake images – probably without even realising it. At best, the figures might have been incorrectly labelled, leading to misrepresentation of data (researchers are, after all, only human). At worst, however, entire images may have been manipulated to better fit the hypotheses of the research team. This type of scientific misconduct has grave consequences for the academic community. The conclusions made in fraudulent papers can trick unsuspecting academics into pouring their time and money into research
24 | SATNAV | June 2021
that is fundamentally doomed to fail. In 2020, a 2006 paper published in Nature (“Lysyl oxidase is essential for hypoxia-induced metastasis”) was retracted after it was reported for containing “several image anomalies”. By this time, the paper had been cited 970 times. Thanks to websites like PubPeer, the Marples and Poirots of the scientific community are able to bring these suspicious papers to light. Dutch scientist Dr Elizabeth Bik (@MicrobiomDigest) is arguably the most famous image sleuther: under the hashtag #ImageForensics, she shares examples of doctored images with her 90,000 Twitter followers. Like a reverse game of spot-the-difference, she encourages her followers to highlight all of the duplications they can find. The first person to match her findings wins the coveted gold medal emoji. In some cases, the manipulation is so obvious that it is a wonder the paper
Issue 22 many whistleblowers into anonymity. Just look at the reactions that Bik’s posts can spark. French microbiologist Didier Raoult - whose claims that hydroxychloroquine could cure COVID-19 prompted then-US president Donald Trump to publicly endorse its use - slandered Bik after she reported several discrepancies in his clinical trial data. In a move reminiscent of the former president, Raoult dismissed a study that contradicted his findings (as referenced by Bik) as “fake news”. But it is through the work of Bik and other image sleuthers that scientific integrity is maintained. While #ImageForensics allows researchers to have fun playing detective, these exercises also help spread awareness among the scientific community. It is important “one begins to twist facts to suit to remember that image anomalies are not always the theories, instead of theories to result of scientific misconduct. Proper suit facts" interpretation requires good background knowledge of the Bohemia, “one begins to twist facts to experiments and equipment used to suit theories, instead of theories to suit obtain the data. Nevertheless, the next facts”. It is therefore vitally important time you are confronted with a that journals safeguard the research suspicious paper, just think: what record and retract papers suspected of would Elizabeth Bik do? misconduct. PubPeer allows scientists to comment on papers after they have been published. The website has become a major forum for reporting scientific misconduct, as it gives authors a chance to clear up any misconceptions or justify their findings. Unfortunately, the threat of lawsuits and career repercussions forces passed peer review in the first place. Features within the image are simply – and crudely – pasted over and over again. These features can be anything from peaks in a graph to the bands in a Western blot. Other times, important aspects of the image are deleted from existence. But it is the images that have been painstakingly mirrored, cropped, stretched, and spliced that cause the biggest concern. Spotting these advanced duplications requires a keen eye for detail (and, ideally, an Adobe Photoshop license). Sadly, it is not hard to understand why some scientists are driven to data fabrication. Publications are the main currency of the science world; the phrase “publish or perish” is well known in the academic community. As Sherlock himself says in A Scandal of
Sources: Retraction of Nature paper: •https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-0202112-4?draft=journal&proof=t •https://retractionwatch.com/2018/03/22/ figures-in-cancer-paper-at-root-of-newly-failedcompound-called-into-question/ •https://retractionwatch.com/the-retractionwatch-leaderboard/top-10-most-highly-citedretracted-papers/
Sources: Elizabeth Bik vs Didier Raoult: •https://scienceintegritydigest.com/2020/03/24/ thoughts-on-the-gautret-et-al-paper-abouthydroxychloroquine-and-azithromycintreatment-of-covid-19-infections/ •https://forbetterscience.com/2020/04/22/ chloroquine-witchdoctor-didier-raoultbarking-mad-and-dangerous/ •https://www.the-scientist.com/news-opinion/ journal-publisher-concerned-overhydroxychloroquine-study-67405
June 2021 | SATNAV | 25
The long struggle for full representation of women in science Daisy Cave exposes the misogyny faced by female scientists throughout history.
S
ociety still has a long way to go in recognising true gender equality in science. There is an obvious need to address the lack of visibility, female role models and women in leadership. Despite the evident problems that still need to be resolved, advances by female scientists are at the forefront of current research – although this reality isn’t yet reflected in many textbooks. The current status of women in science is unrecognisable compared to 100 years ago; prior to the 19th century, women were largely barred from accessing scientific training. The scientific achievements of those who were granted training have historically been overlooked. Many are only credited as ‘voluntary’ faculty members, merely associated with lead male scientists, or
ences membership during the same year she received her second Nobel Prize – in fact, the first woman was only accepted in 1979! This discrimination, which society is still yet to fully shake, was cemented in centuries of prejudice over women’s intellect. Charles Darwin is commonly presented as the ‘grandfather’ of evolutionary theory. However, his contribution to the barriers faced by women in science cannot be brushed aside. Darwin’s The Descent of Man: Selection in Relation to Sex promoted the view that gender equality was impossible to achieve due to the evolutionarysupressed power of women’s brains. His prejudices are littered throughout his writings: “The chief distinction in the intellectual powers of the two sexes is shown by man’s attaining to a higher eminence in whatever “In addressing the barriers and he takes up, than can lack of female visibility in science woman”, (Darwin, 1871). Beyond misogyny, the today, we need to start by book also gave rise to acknowledging the past.” the dangerous concept of ‘Social Darwinism’. This notion expanded the application of as illustrators and translators. Three of the most prestigious sci- “survival of the fittest” to civilisation to entific societies – the Royal Society of support racist and colonialist beliefs, London, the Parisian Académie Royale allowing the rise of eugenics in the des Sciences and Berlin’s Akademie der 20th century. Despite restrictions faced by women Wissenschaften – failed to accept female members for nearly 300 years in science, they do not represent a after their establishment. Marie Curie demographic black hole in historical was refused Académie Royale des Sci- research. The Royal Mint’s recent re-
26 | SATNAV | June 2021
lease of a Mary Anning 50p coin is welcome recognition of a female scientific contribution, from a time when they were refused the same academic standing as male counterparts. But Anning is not the only historical woman in science worth celebrating. In the 17th century, Maria Sibylla Merian pioneered entomology (insect zoology). In 1879, Lincoln University appointed Josephine Silone Yates as USA’s first black female professor, where she taught chemistry. Meanwhile, in the early 20th century, Tilly Edinger’s palaeoneurology research countered the idea that organisms have evolved larger brains over time. In addressing the barriers and lack of female visibility in science today, we need to start by acknowledging the past. Women have always been active in the history of science; now is the time for them to receive due credit.
Issue 22
June 2021 | SATNAV | 27
Mount Paektu: the geological mystery on the China-North Korea border Matthew Morris investigates the mystery magma behind Mount Paektu
M
ount Paektu, also known as Mount Changbai, is a stratovolcano located directly on the border between China and North Korea. The volcano has immense cultural significance to the Korean people; it is mentioned in both the North and South Korean national anthems. However, its geological setting has been a mystery to scientists for decades. Many of the world’s most dangerous volcanoes are concentrated along the infamous ‘ring of fire’– a
28 | SATNAV | June 2021
Issue 22
However, as is always the case with nature, there are outliers. Mount Paektu is over 500 km from the nearest subduction zone, with no observed crustal thinning, and no chain of identified mantle plume. So, why is volcanoes located above subduction there volcanism? zones, where oceanic tectonic plates are Understanding this volcano is descending down, or subducting, not just of scientific intrigue; Mount beneath the less dense continental Paektu is still active and a large eruption could put “ Mount Paektu is still active and a many larger cities, including Seoul and large eruption could put many larger Beijing, at significant Its 946 A.D. cities, including Seoul and Beijing, at risk. eruption was one of the largest eruptions significant risk." ever recorded as it plates. Volcanism occurs at subduction produced enough tephra to blanket an zones due to water released from the area the size of New York City in subducting oceanic plate melting the almost 150 metres of ash. overlying mantle. This forms magma Unfortunately, the volcano has which can rise through the crust, historically been off-limits to causing devastating eruptions. Other geologists wanting to study its inner volcanoes, such as Kīlauea in Hawaii, workings. Both China and North Korea are found away from subduction zones have traditionally been hostile to and are the results of mantle ‘hotspots’. international research efforts. But Volcanoes are also found along following increased activity during the divergent plate boundaries, such as the early 2000’s, the North Korean Mid-Atlantic Ridge or the East African government took an unprecedented Rift Valley, where the crust is very step to call on the wider science thin. community for help in understanding These three forms of the volcano and its potential risk. After volcanism should account for the years of visa issues and coordination, location of every volcano on Earth. in 2011 two scientists from the UK,
James Hammond and Clive Oppenheimer, joined North Korean scientists to uncover Mount Paektu’s hidden secrets. Thanks to the international cooperation, our understanding of this volcano is much clearer. Using an analytical technique called seismic tomography, it is now thought that a portion of subducting oceanic plate has travelled much further laterally than expected, in an area known as the Mantle Transition Zone. However, there is still significant debate regarding this, as recent tomography shows a possible hole in the subducted plate, potentially generating magma through an entirely different process. Although the geological findings are important, there are wider issues to address here, namely the importance of international cooperation for the advancement of science. This is a problem that takes many forms, including the issue of primarily western scientists not engaging with local researchers when studying in developing countries. For the good that comes out of scientific advancement, we must ensure everyone is involved and there are no barriers for global research.
June 2021 | SATNAV | 29
30 | SATNAV | June 2021
Issue 22
It’s not rocket science: How effective communication is key to preventing future space calamities Charlotte Tomlinson looks at the disasters of space travel that were all down to communication.
O
n January 28th 1986, 73 seconds into its flight, the Challenger space shuttle exploded, killing all seven crew members on board. The explosion was caused by a joint in the right solid rocket booster failing at lift off - a result of the O-ring seals used in the joint not being designed to function at extremely cold temperatures. It was revealed at the Rogers Commission that NASA managers had known since 1977 about the flaw in the O-Rings, and they had failed to report warnings from engineers about the dangers of launching on that cold morning to their superiors. Despite this, they had claimed that the probability of failure of the mission was 1 in 100,000. Out of the seven people that died, one was Christa McAuliffe, a school teacher who was meant to be the first ordinary citizen in space, acting as a symbol of the shuttle’s commitment to safety. On April 24th 1967, after being in orbit for a day, the Soyuz 1 crashed back into the ground at 144 km/h, making its pilot Vladimir Komarov the first fatality in the history of spaceflight. Approximate cause of death was a
by recommending that the NASA officials and management deal in the “world of reality”, in that they must set realistic flight times and approximations of success, based on the actual findings of the engineers. This can only be achieved via effective communicabetween manage“There is no “dark side” to science tion ment and its rocket – only human misdirection and scientists. The cause of both miscommunication” disasters were preventan obstructive management culture. able. These problems were known years The design organization in charge of in advance – yet bureaucracy and poor the Soyuz program was the Central communication were the chief causes Design Bureau of Experimental Ma- of these terrible incidents. There is no “dark side” to science – chine Building (TsKBEM). In 1966, it was headed by Vasilii Pavlovich Mish- only human misdirection and miscomin. Although he was a brilliant engin- munication, which threaten scientific eer, he lacked the communication skills achievement and societal progress. needed to be a great leader and manager. It is under Mishin’s command that TsKBEM carried out three automated test flights, all three failing spectacularly, ending in destruction and desolation. The two attempts that reached orbit also faced problems at the re-entry stage, due to the failure of the components involved such as the heat shield and parachute system. A famous member of the Rogers commission, Richard Feynman, upon conducting his own investigation, found that the chance of failure was closer to 1 in 100. Feynman concluded faulty parachute deployment system. However, that unfortunate space mission would not have gone ahead, were it not for the political pressure to launch a mission in time for the 50th anniversary of the Bolshevik Revolution and the May Day celebration, and
June 2021 | SATNAV | 31
