Field Guide to the Solar System
By: Harley Oleson Astronomy 103 Professor Michelle Cullen
Table of Contents Introduction ………………………………………………….……3 Constellations • Personal Constellation………………………………....5 • Winter Constellation, Horologium……………..…6 • Spring Constellation, Lynx………………………..…..7 • Summer Constellation, Corona Borealis…..…..8 • Fall Constellation, Aquarius……………………..…..9 Sun, Moon, and Terrestrial Planets • The Sun………………………………………………..……..11 • The Moon……………………………………………..…….12 • Earth……………………………………………………..…….13 • Mercury……………………………………………..……….14 • Venus…………………………………………………..…..…15 • Mars…………………………………………………..……….16 Gas Giants • Jupiter……………………………………………………...…17 • Saturn…………………………………….…………..….…..18 • Uranus………………………..……………………..….……19 • Neptune……………………………………….………..…..20 Dwarf Planets, Comets, and Asteroids • Ceres…………………………………………………….....…..22 • Comet Hyakutake………………………..…….………….23 • Asteroid 2 Pallas……………..…………………………….24 Citations…………………………………………….................25
Introduction
Approximately fourteen billion years ago, a cataclysmic phenomenon known as the Big Bang occurred. The Big Bang is the credited the cause of the creation of the everexpanding universe. This includes the nebulas, black holes, planets, asteroids, meteors, comets, galaxies, and stars. Without the Big Bang, we would not have the star constellations we see in our night sky, or the planets in our solar system. But what are these extraterrestrial bodies? Take a journey with me through this Field Guide to the Solar System to learn more about the amazing world of space.
Constellations
Personal Constellation
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Name of Constellation: The Wanderer
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Story: There was a young girl who lived in a small, mundane village on frozen ground. For entertainment, the girl would wander around her village and observe the world around her. On occasion, the girl’s mother would take her away to her homeland and the girl would wander and observe that world too. You see, the girl always had her head in the clouds and dreamed of far off places. While looking up, she wondered what it would be like to have wings like a bird. To soar through the sky and see the world. When her head wasn’t in the clouds, it was in a book learning about other places in the world. One evening while looking up at the night sky, the girl made a vow to one day leave her village and visit the exotic places she read and dreamed about. Many years went by and the girl grew older, wiser, and busier. She no longer had time to have her head in the clouds. She quickly learned that hard work, commitment to her responsibilities, and financial awareness was the key to fulfilling her vow. One day, a new person entered her life. The new and exciting person would tell the girl stories of all of the exotic places she visited. The girl was star structed and became more curious of the world. However, the girl was still a long way away from fulfilling her vow. Then one day, the new and exciting provided an opportunity for the girl to see the world. Without a second though, the girl took the chance and became the bird she always wanted to be.
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History of Discovery: The Wanderer was discovered on accident. A group of astronomers was doing research on the stars located in the Lynx constellation when one of the scientists came across the Wanderers main star, Bengalius.
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How to Locate It: You can find the Wanderer constellation by looking below Lynx and to the right of Gemini.
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Special Stars: Bengalius
Winter Constellation – Horologium • Official name of constellation: Horologium Oscillitorium • Common Name: Horologium • Translation of Name: “the clock” or “the pendulum clock” • Myth or Story associated: There are no myths associated with this constellation. • History of Discovery was created in the 18th century by the French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille. Originally named the constellation Horologium Oscillitorium, meaning the pendulum clock, after the inventor of the pendulum clock, Christiaan Huygens. The clock representation comes from the pendulum clock Lacaille used to time his observations. • How to Locate in the Night Sky: Horologium is located in the first quadrant of the southern hemisphere. It can be seen at latitudes between +30° and -90°. It is best seen during the month of December. It is bordered by the constellations of Eridanus, Hydrus, Reticulum, Dorado, and Caelum. • Special Stars or Galaxies: Horologium does not contain any special stars or Messier objects. It does not contain any bright stars. The brightest star in the constellation is Alpha Horologii. It has a visual magnitude of 3.85.
Spring Constellation – Lynx • Official name of constellation: Lynx, sive Tigris • Common Name: Lynx • Translation of Name: No translation • Myth or Story associated: The Lynx constellation does not have a myth associated with it. However, there is speculation that Johannes Hevelius named the constellation after Lynceus. Lynceus was a sailor who sailed with Jason and the Argonauts and was said to have extremely keen eyesight. • History of Discovery: Lynx was introduced by the Polish astronomer Johannes Hevelius. He created the constellation to fill a large gap between the two constellations Auriga and Ursa Major. He named the constellation “Lynx” because it was pretty faint, and it took the eyesight of a lynx to see it. • How to Locate in the Night Sky: It is located in the Northern hemisphere and can be seen at latitudes +90° and -55°. It neighbors the constellations Auriga, Camelopardalis, Cancer, Gemini, Leo, Leo Minor, and Ursa Major. It is most visible in the month of February • Special Stars or Galaxies: As of 2016, Lynx has six stars with one known planet each. Lynx does not have any Messier objects. The brightest star in the constellation is Alpha Lyncis. Alpha Lyncis has a magnitude of 3.13.
Summer Constellation – Corona Borealis •
Official name of constellation: Corona Borealis
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Common Name: Corona Borealis
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Translation of Name: The Northern Crown
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Myth or Story associated: Corona Borealis is supposed to represent the crown crafted by the god Hephaestus and worn by Princess Ariadne of Crete on her wedding day. Princess Ariadne is most famous for helping the Greek hero, Theseus, defeat the Minotaur. It is said that when Princess Ariadne and the god Dionysus got married, she threw her crown into the sky, where the jewels turned into stars.
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History of Discovery: It was first cataloged by the Greek astronomer Ptolemy in the 2nd century. At that time, Corona Borealis was simply known as Corona.
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How to Locate in the Night Sky: Corona Borealis lies in between the constellations Boötes and Hercules. It lies in the third quadrant of the northern hemisphere. It can be seen at latitudes between +90° and -50°. It is best seen during the month of July.
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Special Stars or Galaxies: It has four stars with known planets. Corona Borealis contains no bright deep sky objects, but it does contain the highly concentrated galaxy cluster Abell 2065.
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Alphecca- Alpha Coronae Borealis is the brightest of the seven stars that make up the crown. It has an apparent magnitude between 2.21 and 2.32. Corona Borealis is also home to the Blaze Star (T Coronae Borealis). The Blaze Star is a recurrent nova that has a magnitude of about 10, but during outbursts, it can reach a magnitude of 2. R Coronae Borealis, also known as the Fade-Out Star, is the prototype star for the RCB type variables. These types of stars are where a cloud formation of carbon dust dims the star’s visual brightness by several magnitudes.
Fall Constellation – Aquarius •
Official name of constellation: Aquarius
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Common Name: Aquarius
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Translation of Name: “Cup Bearer” or “Water Bearer”
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Myth or Story associated: In Greek mythology, Aquarius was associated with the cup bearer of the gods. He was known to serve wine or water to Zeus. In another Greek version, Aquarius was identified as the one who unleased the waters that flooded the Earth.
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History of Discovery: Aquarius is a constellation of the Zodiac and one of the oldest documented constellations. It was recorded in the second century by the Greek astronomer, Ptolemy. The first recorded mentions of Aquarius are found in the Babylonian star catalogs. It was identified as “The Great One”.
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How to Locate in the Night Sky: It is located near other the water-related constellations Cetus, Pisces, Delphinus, and Eridanus. This constellation can be seen in the spring in the Southern Hemisphere and in the fall of the Northern Hemisphere. It is visible between +65° and -90°. It is best viewed during the month of October around 9 o’clock in the evening
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Special Stars or galaxies: The brightest star in the Aquarius constellation is a rare yellow supergiant known as beta Aquarii, or also known as Sadalsuud. It has a magnitude of 2.9, but it is 600 light-years away. Alpha Aquarii, is a giant star with a magnitude of 2.95. Aquarius includes a number of planetary nebulae, including NGC 7009-the Saturn Nebula and NGC 7293- the Helix Nebula. The Aquarius constellation is also the host of the ultracool star TRAPPIST-1.
Sun, Moon, and Terrestrial Planets
The Sun •
Official Name: There is no official International Astronomical Union (IAU) name for the Sun, but it is referred as Sol or Solis in various parts of the world.
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Myth or Story: In Greek mythology, the god Helios “shines upon men and deathless gods, and piercingly he gazes with his eyes from his golden helmet. Bright rays beam dazzlingly from him and his bright locks streaming from the temples of his head gracefully enclose his far-seen face: a rich, fine-spun garment glows upon his body and flutters int eh wind: and stallions carry him” (Helios).
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Physical Properties: The sun is a yellow dwarf star. The mass of the sun is 1.99 x 1030 kilograms. It is made up of many gasses, but hydrogen makes up 73.4 percent of the sun’s mass. The sun has five layers. Deep at the center is the Core, next is the Radiative zone and Convection zone. Outside of the convection zone is the Photosphere. Finally, the Chromosphere lays on the outside and contains all of the gasses. The sun has an atmosphere outside of the chromosphere called the Corona. The Earth has a magnetic field called the magnetosphere that protects the planet from the sun’s solar winds. However, every once in a while, those winds strike the Earth’s air molecules in the atmosphere and create curtains of light known as auroras.
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Mission Overview: The Parker Solar Probe is an operating mission to “be placed into an elliptical orbit around the sun.” (NASA). The probe was launched in July of 2018. The probe will orbit the sun 24 times, getting closer to the sun with each complete revolution. NASA is hoping that “Solar Probe Plus will fly within 3.7 million miles of the sun’s surface” on the final three passes. As the probe is getting closer to the sun, it is taking samples of the environment. With the successful completion of this exploration mission, we will have more information about the outer corona of the sun and a “better understanding of the coronal heating and the origin and evolution of solar winds” (NASA).
The Moon •
Official Name: The Moon
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Other Names: Luna, Mond, and Selene
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Size: The Moon has a radius of 1,737.5 kilometers, 1,079.6 miles. It is less than one third of the width of Earth.
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Distance from Earth: 384,400 kilometers or 238,855 miles
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Myth Associated: There was a powerful and rich chief who had a beautiful young daughter. The chief enjoyed looking up at the sun and moon and decided that he wanted them for himself. He found a way to take the sun and moon from the sky and he hung them in his house. The land soon became dark everywhere. There was no longer any light to hunt, fish, or collect firewood. One day, a trickster raven learned that the chief had taken the sun and moon and kept them for himself. The raven saw how the chief adored his daughter and devised a plan to get the sun and moon back. One day, while the young chief’s daughter was at the stream collecting water, the raven turned into a fish and jumped into the stream. When the daughter stopped to take a drink of water from the stream, the raven/fish swam quickly into the daughter’s mouth. Unknowingly, the daughter ate the fish/raven. The raven then magically turned himself into a baby and the girl became pregnant with a baby boy. The chief was thrilled with this and spoiled his new grandson, which was secretly the raven. One day the grandson was throwing a fit. The chief asked the boy what he wanted to calm him down. The boy pointed to the sun and moon hung in the house. The chief took them down and gave them to the boy. There the boy went outside and played with the sun and moon. He threw them up into the sky so high they never came down. When the chief went outside to check on his grandson, the boy turned back into a raven and flew away in the new lit sky.
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Physical Properties: The structure of the moon consists of three layers: the core, mantle, and crust. The core is solid and rich in iron. This solid core is surrounded by a partial liquid shell made out of molten iron. The mantle is made of different minerals composed of magnesium, iron, silicon, and oxygen atoms. The crust is the what we see in the night sky. It is made mostly of oxygen, silicon, magnesium iron, calcium, and aluminum. There have been traces of titanium, uranium, thorium, potassium, and hydrogen found in the crust, but in minuscule amounts. The face of the moon we see is called the near side. It is divided into two areas: the Lunar Highlands and the Maria. The Lunar Highlands are the light areas of the near side and higher in altitude. The Maria are lower in altitude and are the darker areas of the moon. The reason why the Maria are dark is because the material is actually solidified lava from when the moon contained active volcanoes. Both the Maria and Highlands contain craters. More craters can be found in the Highlands because it is exposed to more meteor activity.
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Mission Overview: On January 7, 1968, the United States of America launched Surveyor 7. Surveyor 7 was a lunar spacecraft that was sent to the moon to collect samples of the surface. This was to help determine which area of the moon was better for landing a heavier spacecraft and a suitable spot for astronauts to visit. The spacecraft landed in the lunar highlands near the crater, Tycho. When the rover landed, scientists used a remote control to use the rover’s scoop to collect rocks. The scientists were learning how much these rocks weighed based on how much current was necessary to lift each rock. Surveyor 7 took photographs of the surface and the rock samples. When the scientists got ahold of the photos, the photographs showed that the rocks had signs of molten activity. This helped determine that at one point, the Moon contained active volcanoes. The mission was deemed a success and Surveyor 7 returned to Earth on February 21, 1968. With this knowledge, the United States became one step closer to sending men to the moon.
Earth •
Official Name: Earth
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Other Names: Aarde, Terra, Gaia, Tellus, Jorden, Nchi, and Bumi
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Size: The Earth has a radius of 6,371 kilometers (3,959 miles).
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Distance from Sun: Earth is exactly one astronomical unit (AU) away from the sun. An AU is 150 million kilometers (93 million miles).
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Mass: The Earth has a mass of 5.9735 X 1024 kilograms. That is equivalent to 5.9 sextillion tons.
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Interior Physical Properties: There are four main layers to Earth. It starts with the inner core. The inner core is encased by the outer core, mantle, and finally the crust. The inner core is a solid sphere made of iron and nickel. The outer core surrounds the inner core and is made of molten iron and nickel fluids. The thickest layer of Earth is the mantle. This layer is made of a hot, viscous mixture of molten rock. It is said to have the same consistency of caramel. Lastly, the outermost layer is the crust. The crust goes an average of 30 kilometers (19 miles) deep on land; however, at the bottom of the ocean the crust is thinner is about 5 kilometers (3 miles) away from the mantle. The crust that is we see on land is called “continental crust” and the ocean floor crust is called “oceanic crust”.
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Geology: The crust is not a solid a piece of rock. It is actually broken up into huge chunks called “tectonic plates”. These tectonic plates are made of solid rock composed of mostly basalt and granite. The flowing rock in the mantle causes these plates to move around and create new geological structures. In the weaker parts of the crust, magma from the mantle push up through cracks and make their way onto the surface of the crust, forming volcanoes.
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Atmosphere: Earth’s atmosphere consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.97% argon and carbon dioxide, and 0.04% of other gases and water vapor. The atmosphere can be divided into six layers: the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, exosphere, and ionosphere. The troposphere is the lowest and starts at the ground level of the Earth. The stratosphere is where the ozone layer exists. The mesosphere is the layer where most meteors that enter Earth’s atmosphere burn up. Above the mesosphere is the thermosphere. Here, this is the layer that the northern and southern lights are located. The exosphere is considered the final frontier of the gases that make up Earth’s atmosphere. Finally, the ionosphere is parts of the mesosphere and thermosphere drifting into space. This is the layer interacts with charged particles from solar winds first.
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Myth: In Greek mythology, Chaos came before everything else. Chase was made of Void, Mass, and Darkness. Then, in the form of Gaea, Earth came into existence. Gaea, also known as Mother Earth, created the starry heavens In the form of the sky god Uranus. Along with her existence, she brought the mountains, plains, seas and rivers that make up the Earth. Gaea was the great goddess of the early Greeks. She created the universe and gave birth to both the first race of gods and the first humans.
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Mission Overview: On March 24, 1992, NASA launched a the first of many shuttles into Earth’s atmosphere. This shuttle was called Atlas-1. The launch of Atlas-1 started the Atlas program. Atlas is an acronym for Atmospheric Laboratory of Applications and Science. Atlas-1 was the first of many to study the Earth’s atmosphere and the sun’s influence on it over a 11-year solar cycle. The science mission for Atlas-1 focused on four disciples: atmospheric science, solar science, space plasma physics, and astronomy. This mission allowed scientists to understanding the links between the magnetic fields and plasma that are between the sun and Earth. Also, since the Atlas-1 contained an astronomical telescope on it, scientists were able to learn more about the stages of a star’s life by examining the sources of ultraviolet radiation in the galaxy.
Mercury •
Official Name: Mercury
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Distance from the Sun: 0.4 AU away from the Sun
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Mass: approximately 3.285 x 1023 kilograms
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Myth: The Romans gave Mercury its name after the swift, messenger god Mercurius. Mercurius was the god of translators and interpreters. He was the cleverest of the gods and served as the messenger for the gods. He ruled over wealth, good fortune, commerce, fertility, and thievery. He was also the god of manual arts and eloquence. He was the deity for athletes and watched over stadiums and gymnasiums. Mercurius is depicted as a man who wears a golden winged helmet and winged sandals.
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Interior Physical Properties: Mercury has three layers like Earth. There is a core, mantle, and crust. Mercury’s core is large and metallic. Iron makes up most of the planet’s core. It has a radius of approximately 2,074 kilometers. That is about 85% of the planet’s radius. The mantle surrounds the core and is partially molten. The crust is very thin and brittle. There are no tectonic plates.
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Geology: The appearance of Mercury is similar to Earth’s Moon. The planet is covered in craters from multiple collisions with comets and meteoroids.
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Atmosphere: Mercury does not have an atmosphere. It actually has a thin exosphere made from particles that ricochet of meteoroids when colliding with solar winds from the Sun. The exosphere is made mostly up of oxygen, sodium, hydrogen, helium, and potassium.
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Mission Overview: On November 3, 1973, the spacecraft Mariner 10 was launched to complete a mission to Mercury. Its objective was to measure Mercury’s environment atmosphere and capture images of the surface. Mariner 10 made it to Mercury’s vicinity on March 29, 1974. The spacecraft got within 703 kilometers of the planet’s surface. Over the course of the mission, Mariner 10 made three flybys around Mercury and was able to map 40-45% of Mercury’s surface.
Venus •
Official Name: Venus
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Distance from the Sun: 0.7 AU from the sun
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Mass: 4.87 x 1024 kilograms
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Myth: Venus/Aphrodite was indirectly the cause of the Trojan War. The war started with a contest. The goal was to name the most beautiful goddess. There were three to choose from: Juno, Pallas Athena, and Aphrodite. A young shepherd named Paris was chosen to decide the winner, but instead of judging by appearances, he judged by the gifts they offered. Juno offered Paris to make him the ruler of Europe and Asia. Pallas Athena assured him he would lead the Trojans to victory against the Greeks. Aphrodite offered him the fairest woman in the world, who was Helen of Troy. Paris gave the prize of a golden apple to Aphrodite and was led to Helen by Aphrodite. Her abduction started the Trojan War.
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Interior Physical Properties: Like Mercury and Earth, Venus has a core, mantle, and crust layer. Venus’s core is made of metallic iron. The mantle is molten and rocky. The crust is thin and is mostly composed of basalt. Since the crust is so thin, the molten liquid in the mantle is constantly shifting the crust and creating volcanoes.
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Geology: The surface of Venus contains many craters and evidence of volcanic activity. Venus does not contain any plate tectonics. Due to the high temperatures, it is difficult to get detailed information about the surface. It is assumed that since Venus is similar to Earth, the composition of Venus is similar to the composition of Earth.
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Atmosphere: The atmosphere is mainly composed of carbon dioxide. The atmosphere is surrounded by thick clouds of sulfuric acid droplets. The atmosphere has many layers, all with different temperatures. The atmosphere is heavy. Being in Venus’s atmosphere would feel like being one mile underwater.
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Mission Overview: The Magellan mission was unique. It was the first American mission dedicated to study the surface of Venus. The mission had 4 main objectives: obtain near-global radar images of Venus’s surface, obtain a near-global topographic map, obtain near-global gravity field data, and develop an understanding of the geological structure of the planet. The Magellan was launched on May 5, 1989. On September 15, 1990, the first radar images of Venus’s terrain were received. The images showed evidence of volcanism, tectonic movement, turbulent surface minds, lava channels, and pancake-shaped domes. By the third orbital cycle, the Magellan had imaged about 98 percent of the planet. On October 13, 1994, the Magellan was commanded to plunge into Venus’s atmosphere to gather aerodynamic data. The spacecraft burned up after 10 hours. It is classified as one of the most successful deep space missions.
Mars •
Official Name: Mars
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Distance from the Sun: approximately 1.5 AU
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Mass: 6.42 x 1023 kilograms
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Myth: Mars was the sun of Jupiter and Juno. He is the Roman god of war and was Venus’s lover. He was the father of Romulus and Remus, the founders of the city of Rome. It is said that since Mar’s sons founded the city, Mars would come aid the city when it was in crisis. The month of March is named after Mars.
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Interior Physical Properties: Mars is known as the “Red Planet” because of its iron rich minerals found in the surface. The core of Mars is very dense and is made of iron, nickel and sulfur. Surrounding the core is the mantle. Unlike Earth’s mantle, the mantle inside of Mars is solid and rocky. Lastly, the crust is made out of iron, magnesium, aluminum, calcium, and potassium.
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Geology: Mars is rocky and dusty. It is home to the highest mountain in the solar system and the deepest and longest valley in the solar system. There has been evidence of having an abundance of water 3.5 billion years ago, but the atmosphere is too thin to keep the remaining water in its liquid state.
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Atmosphere: The atmosphere surrounding Mars is thin and is made up of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and argon gases. Around 4 billion years ago, Mars did contain a magnetosphere, however, numerous asteroid strikes and solar winds stripped away the magnetic atoms and lowered Mar’s atmosphere density.
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Mission Overview: In August of 2007, NASA launched a rover to study Mars’ north pole. Ice was recently found close to the surface and NASA wanted to learn more about the planet’s history. The mission and rover were called Phoenix. The machine had mechanical arms that dug trenches into the soil to collect samples. With these samples, the rover would use its chemical analysis instruments to determine the composition of the planet. After a year, the mission was declared a success; however, engineers did lose contact with the rover. In 2010, another Mars mission confirmed that the Phoenix rover was dead. There is speculation that the cold atmospheric temperatures and a cloud blocked the rover’s solar panels and it ran out of power.
Gas Giants
Jupiter •
Official Name: Jupiter
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Distance from the Sun: 5.1 AU
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Mass: 1.898 x 1027 kilograms
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Myth: Jupiter is named after the Roman god Jupiter. He was the king of the Roman gods. No one knows for sure who discovered the planet, but it was known in ancient times. The moons that orbit Jupiter are supposedly named after beings Jupiter associated with. In Roman mythology, Jupiter was the king of heaven and Earth and was also known as the god of justice. He was named king to overthrow the god Saturn and the Titans.
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Interior Physical Properties: The composition of Jupiter is similar to the Sun. It is mostly made out of hydrogen and helium gas. It does not have a true surface. There are theories that Jupiter might have a solid inner core, but it would only be about the size of planet Earth. The swirls and stripes on the planet’s appearance are actually cold, windy clouds of ammonia and water. Jupiter is easily recognized for The Great Red Spot located on the southern part of the planet.
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Atmosphere: In a deep region of the atmosphere, the pressure and temperature are greater. This heighten pressure and temperature compresses the hydrogen into a liquid. The amount of the liquid hydrogen is enormous and is considered the largest ocean in the solar system.
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Ring Properties: Jupiter’s ring system was discovered in 1989 by Voyager 1. These rings were a surprise to discover. They are composed of small dark particles that are difficult to see when backlit by the sun. There are theories that the rings were formed as a result of dust floating around from interplanetary meteoroid crashes near Jupiter’s smaller moons.
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Number of Moons: Jupiter has a total of 79 moons. 53 are confirmed and 26 provisionary, meaning waiting for confirmation. Jupiter’s four largest moons are Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto.
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Notable Moon Info: Callisto is the fourth largest moon orbiting Jupiter. It was discovered by Galileo Galilei and is considered the last Galilean moon of Jupiter. Callisto has a cratered surface. There are theories that Callisto may also be home to an underground ocean. It is uncertain if there is life in this ocean because the surface of the moon is old. There is a current mission in development to go visit Callisto and get more information about this and two other icy moons of Jupiter.
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Mission Overview: The mission Juno launched in August 2011. Its mission was to study Jupiter from polar orbit for one year. The objectives of the Juno mission were to investigate (1) the formation and origin of Jupiter’s atmosphere and the potential migration of planets through the measurement of Jupiter’s global abundance of oxygen and nitrogen; (2) variations in Jupiter’s deep atmosphere related to meteorology, composition, temperature profiles, cloud opacity, and atmospheric dynamics; (3) the fine structure of Jupiter’s magnetic field; (4) the gravity field and distribution of mass inside the planet; and (5) Jupiter’s three dimensional polar magnetosphere and aurorae. The mission is planned to last 37 obits. At the end of the mission, Juno will be deorbited and burn up in Jupiter’s atmosphere.
Saturn •
Official Name: Saturn
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Distance from the Sun: 9.5 AU
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Mass: 5.683 x 1026 kilograms
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Myth: Saturn was named after the Roman god of agriculture and harvest. The planet may have gotten its name from its golden color because it looks like a field of wheat. According to mythology, the god Saturn stole the position of king of the gods from his father, Uranus, but then had it stolen from Jupiter.
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Interior Physical Properties: The dominating gases that compose Saturn are hydrogen and helium. Despite being the second largest planet in the solar system, Saturn has the lowest density. It is a gas giant and does not have a true surface. Saturn does have a dense core made out of water, ice, and rocky material. There is not actual landmass though. The core is believed to be similar to Jupiter–rocky and covered by a layer liquid metallic hydrogen and a layer with molecular hydrogen and ice.
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Atmosphere: Like Venus, Saturn is covered in clouds. These clouds give the planet a stripe appearance. Like Jupiter, those clouds are jet streams and storms. The atmosphere surrounding Saturn is composed of ammonia, ammonia hydrosulfide, and water. These compounds give the planet a brownish-yellow appearance.
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Ring Properties: Saturn has the most notable rings out of the gas giants. The rings were first seen by Galileo Galilei in 1610. Saturn has many rings made from particles of ice and rock. The ice and rocks that make up the rings range in size. The smallest can be the size of a sugar granule and the largest could be the size of a house. In 2016, a study suggested that the rings may also be chunks of dwarf planets.
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Number of Moons: Saturn currently has the most moons. There is a total of 82 moons. 53 are confirmed and 29 are provisional. The largest of Saturn’s moons is Titan.
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Notable Moon Info: Out of all of Saturn’s moons, Titan is the most notable. It is the second largest moon in the solar system. It is slightly larger than the planet Mercury. Titan is the only known moon with a substantial atmosphere. It is also the only place besides Earth known to have liquids in the form of rivers, lakes, and seas on the surface. These forms are made of liquid methane and ethane. Titan does have a thick crust of ice that is more water than methane. It may harbor life, but no evidence has confirmed it.
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Mission Overview: The Cassini Orbiter’s mission consisted of a probe called Huygens to be sent to Saturn’s moon Titan. After studying the moon, the probe was to orbit Saturn and learn more about the planet’s rings and other satellites. The main objectives of the Cassini mission were to (1) determine the three dimensional structure and dynamical behavior of the rings; (2) determine the composition of the satellite surfaces and the geological history of each object; (3) determine the nature and origin of the dark material on the moon lapetus’s leading hemisphere; (4) measure the three dimensional structure and dynamical behavior of the magnetosphere; (5) study the dynamical behavior of Saturn’s atmosphere at cloud level; (6) study the time variability of Titan’s clouds and hazes; and (7) characterize Titan’s surface on a regional scale. The Cassini Orbiter was launched in October of 1997. The Cassini released the Huygens probe in December of 2004, and it landed on Titan in January of 2005. In September of 2017, the Cassini entered Saturn’s atmosphere and is on course to end its mission.
Uranus •
Official Name: Uranus
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Distance from the Sun: 19.2 AU
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Mass: 8.681 x 1025 kilograms
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Myth: Uranus is known as Father Sky and the personification of the heavens in Greek mythology. He was also known as the ruler of the known universe. He is the son of Gaia and became an ancestor of almost all Greek Gods. However, he was not a good father and his children rebelled against him. He died by the hands of his son Cronus.
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Interior Physical Properties: Uranus is one of the two ice giants in our solar system. More than 80 percent of the planet’s mass is made up of a hot dense fluid of water, methane, and ammonia. Uranus does have a small rocky core. Like Jupiter and Saturn, Uranus does not have a true surface.
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Atmosphere: The atmosphere surrounding Uranus is mostly made of hydrogen and helium, much like Jupiter and Saturn. There are also small traces of methane, water, and ammonia. The methane gives Uranus the blueish-green appearance. The magnetosphere around Uranus is much different than the rest of the planets in the solar system. Uranus’s magnetic field is tipped over and rotates north to south rather than east to west.
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Ring Properties: Uranus has two sets of rings, the inner system and the outer system. The inner system has nine rings that are dark grey and thin. The outer system is subdivided into two more systems-the innermost and the outer ring. The innermost outer ring is red in appearance and the outer ring is blue.
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Number of Moons: Uranus has 27 known moons. There are five major moons that orbit Uranus. Unlike the other planets, the satellites orbiting around Uranus are named after characters from William Shakespeare’s plays and Alexander Pope’s plays instead of Roman or Greek mythology. All of Uranus’s inner moons appear to be half water and ice and half rock.
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Notable Moon Info: The smallest of the five major moons of Uranus is Miranda. It was the last moon to be discovered before the Voyager 2 made it’s visit in 1986. Miranda is said to be similar to Frankenstein’s monster, meaning it looks like it was pieced together from other satellites that didn’t fit together. Miranda is the strangest moon out of all of the moons in our solar system. It is home to three giant fault canyons. These canyons are as much as 12 times deeper than the Grand Canyon.
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Mission Overview: The only known spacecraft to ever visit Uranus is the Voyager 2. The Voyager 2 was launched in 1977 and reached Uranus in 1986. While the rings of Uranus were discovered on Earth, the Voyager 2 discovered the moons that orbit Uranus. The Voyager 2 did collect some images of Uranus’s rings during its visit.
Neptune •
Official Name: Neptune
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Distance from the Sun: approximately 30.1 AU
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Mass: 1.024 x 1026 kilograms
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Myth: Neptune was unknown in the ancient times. In 1846, it was discovered by some astronomers. Those astronomers continued the pattern of naming the planet after a Roman deity. Since Neptune has a royal blue hue, the astronomers decided to name the planet Neptune-the Roman god of the sea.
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Interior Physical Properties: Neptune is the other icy giant in the solar system. It is mostly made up of hot, dense fluid of water, methane, and ammonia that surrounds a small rocky core-much like Uranus. Neptune does not have a true surface like the other gas giants, but there are conspiracies of an ocean of extremely hot water underneath the cold clouds.
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Atmosphere: The atmosphere surround Neptune is made up of hydrogen, helium, and methane. The methane traces are what gives Neptune that deep blue color. Scientists think there is another gas component in Neptune’s atmosphere that helps the planet achieve its beautiful appearance, but that information is still unknown.
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Ring Properties: Neptune has at least five main rings and four noticeable ring arcs. The rings are young and short-lived. The arcs are made out of clumps of dust and do not spread out evenly. Scientists speculate that the gravitational effects of the moon Galatea, is what stabilizes the arcs in place.
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Number of Moons: Neptune has 14 known moons. Since Neptune was named after the Roman god of the sea, all of Neptune’s moons were named after various lesser Greek sea gods and nymphs.
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Notable Moon Info: The most notable Moon of Neptune is Triton. Triton is the largest out of Neptune’s moons. It is also the only large moon in our solar system that orbits its host planet backwards. This retrograde orbit makes scientists think that Triton was once an independent object and got captured by Neptune. Triton is extremely cold. It has two geysers that eject ice materials.
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Mission Overview: Like Uranus, Voyager 2 is the only known spacecraft to have been to Neptune. Voyager 2 launched in 1977 and reached Neptune in 1989. During the mission, the Voyager 2 captured photos of Neptune as well as its largest moon, Triton.
Dwarf Planets, Comets, and Asteroids
Dwarf Planet Ceres •
Official Name: Ceres
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Distance from Sun: 2.8 AU
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Mass: 8.958 x 1020 kilograms
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Myth: Ceres was the Roman goddess of agriculture, grain, and the love a mother bears for a child. She was the daughter of Saturn and Ops. She is also the sister of Jupiter and the mother of Proserpine. Ceres was a kind and benevolent goddess to the Romans. The Romans had a common conversational expression based from Ceres kindness, “fit for Ceres”. It was an expression used to mean splendid.
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Interior properties: Ceres is very similar to the terrestrial planets of our solar system, but it is much less dense. Ceres has a rocky, layered interior, but they aren’t clearly defined. It can be anticipated that Ceres has a solid core and a mantle made out of water ice. The crust of the planet is rocky and dusty with large salt deposits. The salt deposits are not composed of sodium chloride (table salt). Instead they are made out of different minerals like magnesium sulfate.
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Geology: Ceres is composed of mainly ice and rock. It has a rocky interior with an icy exterior. It is covered in numerous small craters. The surface of the dwarf planet is a mixture of ice, various minerals, and iron rich clay.
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Atmosphere: Ceres has a very thin atmosphere. Traces of water vapor have been found in the atmosphere. There is speculation that the vapors are produced from ice volcanoes or the ice on the surface is transforming into a gas.
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Mission Summary: In 2007, NASA launched the space probe Dawn on a mission to visit the two dwarf planets Vesta and Ceres to study more about their composition. Dawn arrived at Ceres in March of 2015. By 2016, Dawn obtained all of the required data set by the mission’s original objectives. Dawn obtained the global shape, average density, surface morphology, mineralogy, elemental composition, regional activity, and topography of Ceres.
Comet Hyakutake •
Official Name: Comet Hyakutake, also designated Comet C/1996 B2
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Perihelion Distance: 0.23019 AU, at the time of discovery it was 2.0 AU away from Earth.
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Period: Comet Hyakutake has a long period. Its orbital rotation is 200 years. It visits the inner solar system once every 70,000 years.
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Interior properties: Astronomers detected a large but equal amount of ethane and methane gases inside the comet. Astronomers imply that the ice must be formed away from the sun and the gases are released as it approaches a large heat source. The comet’s water ices have also exposed amounts of deuterium.
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Mission Summary: The only spacecraft to get close to Comet Hyakutake was the Ulysses spacecraft. The spacecraft actually “ran” into the tail of the comet and collected a large amount of data. That data is still being combed through. A large amount of knowledge on long-period comets came from Comet Hyakutake.
Asteroid 2 Pallas • Official Name: 2 Pallas • Distance from Sun: orbits as close as 2.14 AU and reaching as far as 3.41 AU • Location (belt): Pallas orbits between Mars and Jupiter in the main portion of the asteroid belt. • Mass: around 1.2 x 1020 kilograms • Known Information: Pallas was discovered in 1802 by German astronomer Heinrich Wilhelm Olbers. Pallas was named after the Greek goddess of wisdom, Pallas Athena. It is the second largest main belt asteroid. Pallas has an ellipsoidal shape. Its composition resembles Pallas is a spectral type B, which means it is likely to contain iron, hydrogen, ammonia, and nitrogen. Pallas takes 4.61 years to travel around the Sun and 7.811 days to do a full rotation on its axis. The last official observation of Pallas was on August 26, 2019. • Mission Summary: According to the National Health and Aging Trends Study, Pallas is not considered to be a viable subject for human exploration.
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