B I B L I C A L
JEZEBEL: ALL WE KNOW Every Wind of Doctrine Bins and Barns: Food Storage in the Biblical World
volume 46 number 1
fall 2019
G. B. Howell, Jr. Content Editor
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RE YOU SURE THIS IS where we are supposed to be? That was my thought as we mazed our way through a residential area not far from Nazareth. We eventually pulled into a driveway. A lady came out of the side door and spoke to Mike, our driver. After pleasantries, she motioned for us to head behind the house. We went though a gate and then climbed up a stone embankment. In front of us was a small open field, covered with grass and surrounded by wildflowers. “We” were Dr. Stephen Andrews, professor of Old Testament and Hebrew at Midwestern Baptist Theological Seminary in Kansas City; Brent Bruce, who has been the graphic designer for Biblical Illustrator since 1992; Kristen Hiller, a photographer provided us by the International Mission Board; and yours truly. When planning a photo trip for Biblical Illustrator, I always work with a professional tour operator; this time it was Mike who was also serving as our driver and guide. Months in advance, I send a list of places we need to visit. The list will include the expected places: Sea of Galilee, Jerusalem, Capernaum, the Dead Sea, Jericho, Qumran, and the like. The list also includes obscure sites—such as this small field in front of us. In fact, when I sent Mike our list, he replied, “Are you sure? I have been doing this for over 30 years and nobody has ever wanted to go here. I don’t think I even know where that is!” I was sure, and here we were, in the most obscure site on our list, Gath-hepher, which had been Jonah’s hometown (2 Kings 14:25). In this issue you will read many informative articles. One looks at the time in which Jonah lived (p. 76). For many years people have questioned the authenticity of the Book of Jonah. Was he a real person, or is his story just a fanciful myth? I stand with firm conviction that Jonah was a real prophet who lived in certain point in history. “But he was swallowed by a great fish, and survived! How could this be a true story?” I believe it to be true for two reasons: “for the Bible tells me so,” and I have been to his hometown!
Dwayne McCrary Team Leader Ken Braddy Director, Adult Ongoing Curriculum Michael Kelley Director, Group Ministry Send questions/comments to: Content Editor, Biblical Illustrator One LifeWay Plaza, Nashville, TN 37234-0175 Or make comments on the Web at lifeway.com. @B_Illustrator visit lifeway.com/biblicalillustrator Biblical Illustrator (ISSN 0195-1351, Item 005075109) is published quarterly by LifeWay Christian Resources, One LifeWay Plaza, Nashville, TN 37234, Thom S. Rainer, President. © 2019 LifeWay Christian Resources. For ordering or inquiries visit lifeway.com, or write LifeWay Resources Customer Service, One LifeWay Plaza, Nashville, TN 37234-0113. For bulk shipments mailed quarterly to one address, fax (615) 251-5933, e-mail orderentry@lifeway.com, or write to the above address. Annual individual subscription, $29.00. Bulk shipments mailed quarterly to one address when ordered with other literature, $6.75 each per quarter, plus shipping. Please allow six to eight weeks for arrival of first issue. Biblical Illustrator is designed to support the Bible study sessions in the student and adult Bible Studies for Life curriculum, the Explore the Bible curriculum series, and The Gospel Project curriculum. Bible background articles and accompanying illustrative material are based on the passages studied in these curriculum series. We believe that the Bible has God for its author; salvation for its end; and truth, without any mixture of error, for its matter and that all Scripture is totally true and trustworthy. To review LifeWay’s doctrinal guideline, please visit lifeway.com/doctrinalguideline. Scripture quotations marked CSB® are taken from the Christian Standard Bible®, Copyright 2017 by Holman Bible Publishers. Used by permission. Scripture quotations marked (ESV®) are from the English Standard Version® (The Holy Bible, English Standard Version®), copyright 2001 by Crossway, a publishing ministry of Good News Publishers. Used by permission. All rights reserved. Scripture quotations marked (HCSB) are taken from the Holman Christian Standard Bible®, Copyright © 1999, 2000, 2002, 2003, 2009 by Holman Bible Publishers. Used by permission. Scripture quotations marked (NASB) are from the New American Standard Bible®, Copyright © 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995 by The Lockman Foundation. Used by permission. (www.lockman.org) Scripture quotations marked (NIV) are from the Holy Bible, New International Version®, NIV®. Copyright 1973, 1978, 1984, 2011 by Biblica, Inc.® Used by permission of Zondervan. All rights reserved worldwide. www.zondervan.com The “NIV” and “New International Version” are trademarks registered in the United States Patent and Trademark Office by Biblica, Inc.® Scripture quotations marked (NKJV) are from the New King James Version®. Copyright © 1982 by Thomas Nelson. Used by permission. All rights reserved. Scripture quotations marked (NLT) are taken from the Holy Bible, New Living Translation, copyright ©1996, 2004, 2007, 2013, 2015 by Tyndale House Foundation. Used by permission of Tyndale House Publishers, Inc., Carol Stream, IL 60188. All rights reserved.
ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ KRISTEN HILLER (48-3440)
Printed in the United States of America
1105
About the Cover: Phoenician crown depicting motifs of fertility goddesses, sun disks, sacred trees, lotus blossoms, and rosettes; dates from 10th–9th cent. BC. Jezebel was the daughter of the Phoenician king, Ethbaal and wife of Israel’s King Ahab. ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/BRENT BRUCE/ WALTERS ART MUSEUM/ BALTIMORE (75/0311)
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On a scale of 1-10, this book receives a rating of 9 camels.
Reading the Bible with Rabbi Jesus by Lois Tverberg; Baker Books; 2017; 290 pages; hardback; ISBN: 978-0-8010-1715-5 Book reviews are limited to those the Illustrator staff feels confident to recommend, based on ease of reading, quality of content, and doctrinal viewpoint. Each book is reviewed within LifeWay’s doctrinal guidelines. The 1 to 10 scale reflects overall quality and usefulness.
YES!
HIS IS LOIS TVERBERG’S third book delving into the culture in which “Rabbi Jesus” lived and taught. Her goal is to enable the reader, as much as possible, to “read the Bible as one of Jesus’ first century disciples” might have (p. 10). A challenging task, indeed! Tverberg approaches this endeavor by sharing her experiences from travel and study in Israel and the Middle East. These experiences helped her “mentally bridge the gap” between Western thought and Jewish perspectives (57), prompting a twenty-year journey of learning to appreciate the “Hebrew way of looking at the world” (78). The book has three main sections. Section One, “Repacking Our Mental Bags,” helps the reader identify differences between Jewish and non-Jewish worldviews, offering ways to appreciate and engage in Hebrew thought. Section Two, “How the Bible Thinks,” orients the reader to Old Testament family and community values, challenging the “me” orientation of Western thought. Section Three, “Reading About the Messiah,” introduces
Old Testament Messianic themes and patterns and explores how Jesus used them in His teaching. Tverberg shares personal insights, which helps readers better appreciate Jesus’ use of Scripture. Each chapter concludes with an invitation to engage in personal reflection, offering both print and web-friendly study resources. The author’s style makes the information easy to digest.
I was pleased with the book’s balance of devotional and scholarly content, especially the references from Rabbinic literature and thought. The endnotes are helpful without being overwhelming. Appendices provide information on the Hebrew Bible, significant Hebrew words, and an annotated comparison of Bible translations. Laypersons and ministers wanting to enrich their study and appreciation for Jewish views of the Old Testament will find this a helpful resource for study or as a quick reference. I Lynn O. Traylor is the director of missions for the Liberty Association in Glasgow, Kentucky.
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Contents
FA L L 2 0 1 9 V O L U M E 4 6 N U M B E R 1
DEPARTMENTS 2
BI Lines
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BI the Book: Reading the Bible With Rabbi Jesus By Lois Tverberg Book review by Lynn O. Traylor
29 Sexual Climate of the First Century by Alan Branch October 6 // Session 6 84 “Mystery” in the New Testament by G. Al Wright, Jr. October 27 // Session 3 94 Who Were the Pagans? by Argile A. Smith, Jr. November 3 // Session 4
InSites (between pages 66-67) Battle of Carchemish The Temple and the Church at Ephesus by Scott Hummel
53 Intercession by Bill Patterson November 10 // Session 5
98 Issues Gone BI
42 Martha: All We Know by Martha S. Bergen November 17 // Session 6
BIBLE STUDIES FOR LIFE 18
Bins and Barns: Food Storage in the Biblical World by Paul E. Kullman September 1 // Session 1
EXPLORE THE BIBLE 37 Power for Living in Ephesians by Gerald L. Stevens September 1 // Session 1
10 Debit or Credit? Paul’s Use of Financial Terminology by Shawn L. Buice September 15 // Session 3
41 “In Christ Jesus” Paul’s Understanding by Gerald L. Stevens September 1 // Session 1
72 Food and Diet in the First Century by Darryl Wood September 22 // Session 4
67 Ephesus: A Historical Overview by Rex D. Butler Entire quarter
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S E E R E L AT E D B I B L E S T U D Y R E S O U R C E S :
www.BibleStudiesForLife.com • www.lifeway.com/ExploreTheBible • www.GospelProject.com
46 His Workmanship: A Word Study by Steve Booth September 15 // Session 3
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26 Foreigners and Strangers in Roman Culture by Michael Priest September 22 // Session 4
76 Jonah: His Life and Times by E. LeBron Matthews September 29 // Session 5
InSites: The Temple and the Church at Ephesus by Scott Hummel September 22 // Session 4
22 Baalism and Hebrew Worship by Allan Moseley October 6 // Session 6
14 Every Wind of Doctrine by Bennie R. Crockett, Jr. October 20 // Session 8
63 Assyria’s Assault and the Fall of Israel by T. J. Betts October 13 // Session 7
60 Old Self -vs- New Self: A Contrast by Cecil R. Taylor October 27 // Session 9
49 Josiah: His Rule and Reforms by Kevin C. Peacock October 27 // Session 9
56 Bridal Imagery: A Biblical Overview by Garry D. Graves November 17 // Session 12
InSites: Battle of Carchemish November 10 // Session 11 88
80 Armor as Biblical Imagery by Randall L. Adkisson November 24 // Session 13
Jezebel, All We Know by George H. Shaddix September 8 // Session 2
Nebuchadnezzar: Mighty Destroyer or Mighty Builder? by Joel F. Drinkard, Jr. November 17 // Session 12
THE GOSPEL PROJECT 33 Weather Conditions in Ancient Israel by Bryan E. Beyer September 1 // Session 1
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TGP: 1 Kings 18:1–19:18
JEZEBEL
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ALL WE KNOW
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BY GEORGE H. SHADDIX peace. Solomon knew these kings worshiped Asherah as a fertilwould not attack a land where their daughters were married to the king. An inherent danger in the practice was that the king’s new wife would bring into the marriage her beliefs and practices. A committed follower, Jezebel remained loyal to Baal even after she came to Israel. This Phoenician-based religion had a great influence on the Israelites. Many turned from worshiping Yahweh to worshiping Baal. Others took what they considered the best of both, combining them into a form of blended allegiance to both Baal and God. Jezebel not only worshiped Baal, she also worshiped Asherah, the “mother goddess” who appeared alongside other gods in a number of religions. Syrians and Canaanites
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HO WAS JEZEBEL? What do we know about her? Let’s attempt to answer these questions. Jezebel’s Father Jezebel was the daughter of Ethbaal, a priest of Astarte according to Josephus.1 Ethbaal became king by assassinating his brother. He also overthrew Hiram, the king of Tyre, thereby becoming the king of Tyre and Sidon (sometimes spelled Zidon). He ruled for thirty-two years.2 Uniting the Phoenician cities, he was able to expand their influence and increase trade. Ethbaal’s name means “with him is Baal.”3 This identifies Ethbaal and his daughter, Jezebel, with the pagan worship of Baal and Astarte (Ashtoreth), the Canaanite god and goddess. Ethbaal’s beliefs and practices likely had a strong influence on Jezebel. For instance, one has to wonder if, based on her father killing his own brother, Jezebel condoned killing someone or having someone killed who stood in the way of a person achieving his or her heart’s desire.
Jezebel’s Influence One biblical passage points dramatically to Jezebel’s influence in the religious practices of the Israelites (1 Kings 18). Four hundred and fifty prophets of Baal and 400 prophets of Asherah ate at Jezebel’s table (v. 19). She also slaughtered many of the prophets of God (v. 4). Because the Israelites had a history of turning increasingly away from Yahweh, He withheld rain for three-and-a-half years. This devastated the land, crops, pastures, and people.
Main arch in old city of Tyre. During Elijah’s ministry, King Ahab of the Northern Kingdom was married to Jezebel, who brought with her the pagan worship that she had participated in while living in Tyre.
ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BOB SCHATZ (26/31/17)
Jezebel’s Religion Following the influence of her father, Jezebel was a devout worshiper of Baal. Baal was a weather god and “the god who provided fertility.”4 Adherents believed Baal could bless the people and drive away their enemies, but he could also be destructive when angered.5 To appease Baal, people would often offer human sacrifices. When Israel’s King Ahab married Jezebel, he followed a practice of Solomon, who married the daughters of kings in surrounding countries as a means of securing
ity goddess. Under Jezebel’s influence, Asherah worship joined Baal worship and became prevalent throughout the Northern Kingdom of Israel.
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at Mount Carmel. Afterwards, though, his confidence in God seemingly vanished. Why would he run? He ran because he was aware of Jezebel’s actions! Following the reputation of her father, Jezebel would have been ready and willing to do anything necessary to have her way. Elijah knew her reputation and that she was deadly serious when she had threatened to take his life. He allowed his fear and insecurity to override his faith in God. He should have stopped to consider the limitless power of God. The Lord had withheld the rain and He
had sent fire from heaven upon the altar. Yet, Elijah could focus only on the threat of Jezebel. Jezebel influenced not only Israel’s worship practices, she also affected her husband. Ahab wanted a vineyard owned by Naboth; it was next to the royal palace. Ahab offered to exchange vineyards with Naboth, but he refused (1 Kings 21:1-3). Why? Maybe because of God’s directive: “The land is not to be permanently sold because it is mine, and you are only aliens and temporary residents on my land” (Lev. 25:23).
Right: Site in Sinai referred to as Elijah’s basin. According to tradition, this is the location where Elijah stayed after he fled from Jezebel (1 Kings 19:8-18). Lower right: Statue of Elijah on Mount Carmel; the prophet uses his foot to hold down one of the defeated prophets of Baal.
ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BRENT BRUCE
Elijah told King Ahab that God said He would send rain again upon the land. Elijah then challenged the priests of Baal to a contest to determine who was the true God (see vv. 18-40.). Both he and they would build separate altars on Mount Carmel and offer sacrifices. Elijah challenged the prophets of Baal to call upon their god to send fire to consume the sacrifice on their altar. After their allday efforts were to no avail, Elijah repaired an altar and with a simple prayer, at the time of the evening sacrifice, asked the Lord to send fire. God responded! Then Elijah commanded the people to seize the prophets of Baal. They obeyed, captured the prophets, and brought them to the Kishon River. There, Elijah slaughtered them. Jezebel heard what had happened. She sent word to Elijah saying, “May the gods punish me and do so severely if I don’t make your life like the life of one of them by this time tomorrow!”6 Elijah ran! Why? He had seen the hand of God work mightily
Crusader-era ruins atop Jezreel, adjacent to the Jezreel Valley. Jezebel was killed at Jezreel; afterward Jehu trampled her under his feet.
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ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BOB SCHATZ (19/11/3)
ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BRENT BRUCE (60/9687)
ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BRENT BRUCE/ ROCKEFELLER MUSEUM/ JERUSALEM (190/B/1330)
Spring at the foot of Jezreel; near the end Saul’s life, the army of Israel camped at the spring of Jezreel (1 Sam. 29:1). ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ G.B. HOWELL (152/GB/3260)
Jezebel told Ahab to exercise his power as king and take the vineyard. She had probably seen her father exercise such authority. When Ahab refused, she devised a plan to have Naboth killed. Using others to do her wishes, Jezebel had Naboth stoned to death and his sons killed as well (1 Kings 21:4-6; 2 Kings 9:26). She apparently had learned from her father, when someone stood in the way, have him or her killed! She had no concern for the sacredness of human life. She saw herself as queen, as all powerful, determined that nothing would stand in her way, not even the Law of God. She worshiped Baal; therefore, she saw no need to have or show reverence and respect for the God of Israel and His Word.
Above: Skeletal remains from a dog burial at Ashkelon; the practice of dog interment at Ashkelon may have been related to the cult of Rasp-Mukal, a Phoenician deity associated with healing. After Jezebel fell to her death, dogs consumed all but her head, hands, and feet.
Jezebel’s Death God’s verdict concerning Jezebel’s death was “the dogs will eat Jezebel in the plot of land at Jezreel” (1 Kings 21:23). Jehu saw her at a palace window and had her thrown from it and into the street. Her blood splattered on the wall; the dogs ate her flesh leaving only her skull, feet, and hands (2 Kings 9:30-37). Jezebel’s Remembrance The rabbis have remembered Jezebel in these ways:7 First, they have proclaimed that she was “among the four women who ruled in the world.” Second, the rabbis believed that the dogs did not eat her hands, feet, or head “because of the acts of kindness that Jezebel performed.” They believed that,
as funeral or wedding processions passed the palace, she expressed grief or joy by walking a short distance with the family, clapping her hands, and speaking either a lament or well wishes to the participants. Hence her hands, feet, and head were preserved. Finally, “Another midrash adds that Jezebel and her seventy sons also lost both this world and the next.” Her reputation would last for centuries. “Jezebel’s name became so associated with wickedness that the false prophetess in the church at Thyatira was labeled ‘Jezebel’ (Rev. 2:20).”8 I 1. Against Apion 1.18; “Ethbaal” in The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia [ISBE], gen. ed. Geoffrey W. Bromiley, vol. 2 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982), 164. 2. Ibid. 3. “Eth-Baal” in Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary [HIBD], gen. ed. Chad Brand (Nashville: Holman Reference, 2015), 513. 4. James Newell, “Baal,” in HIBD, 156. 5. Wolfgang Herrmann, “Baal,” in Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible, ed. Karel van der Toorn, Bob Becking, and Pieter W. van der Horst (New York: Brill, 1995), 251–54. 6. 1 Kings 19:2; all Scripture quotations are from the Christian Standard Bible (CSB). 7. Tamar Kadari, “Jezebel: Midrash and Aggadah,” in Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia, Jewish Women’s Archive, March 20, 2009, jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/jezebel-midrash-and-aggadah. 8. “Jezebel,” in HIBD, 901.
George H. Shaddix is pastor of Dunn’s Creek Baptist Church in Echola, Alabama. LIFEWAY.COM/BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR
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BSFL: Philippians 4:10-20
DEBIT or
CREDIT
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PA U L’ S U S E O F F I N A N C I A L T E R M I N O LO G Y
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ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BRENT BRUCE/ NAPLES ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM/ NAPLES, ITALY (173/B/2360)
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BY S H AW N L . B U I C E
S I COMPLETE THIS ARTICLE, BOTH Thanksgiving and Christmas have passed. This time of year churches in my denomination emphasize a special offering for international missions. Interestingly, the focal text for this article, Philippians 4:10-20, ties together these two respective holidays: Thanksgiving and Christmas. First, Paul took time to express his gratitude to the Philippian believers for their continued financial support. Second, their support helped him as he ministered and spread the gospel of Christ in various places. How did Paul unite these two emphases? Context On his second missionary journey, Paul first stopped in Philippi, a city near the northern coast of the Aegean Sea. According to Luke, several significant events took place while Paul was in Philippi: a woman named Lydia came to know the Lord (Acts 16:13-15), Paul and Silas were thrown into prison (vv. 19-24), and the Philippian jailer and his household came to know the Lord (vv. 25-34). What a beginning to the second missionary journey! At some point after leaving Philippi, Paul sent a letter to the believers there. He addressed several topics in this letter. First, Paul expressed his tremendous affection for the believers there: “I thank my God in all my remembrance of you, always offering prayer with joy in my every prayer for you all, in view of your participation in the gospel from the first day until now” (Phil. 1:3-5, nasb).1 Second, he updated them on his situation in jail (vv. 12-14,19). Third, Paul urged the
PUBLIC DOMAIN
Above: Banker’s ticket; ivory; when a banker would ship money to another city, he would put the money in a sealed bag and then use a banker’s ticket to verify the
bag’s contents. The Latin word “VADIO” means “security.” Top: Roman relief depicting a bearded banker standing at his exchange desk.
The patron on the right holds a bag, likely containing coins. A slave, shown right, holds over his left shoulder a bag that likely contained grain. In his right hand was likely a cup, which he would have used to measure out the grain.
believers to be unified. Apparently, some dissension existed in the church (2:1-4; 4:2-3). Fourth, Paul warned the believers at Philippi about false teachers (3:1-6). Fifth, he also urged them to “pursue . . . the prize promised by God’s heavenly call in Christ Jesus” (v. 14). Finally, Paul took a moment to thank the Philippian
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Ruins of the forum and agora at Philippi; rising in the background are the massive remains from a Christian basilica built in the 6th cent.
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ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ G.B. HOWELL (35/48/43) ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BOB SCHATZ/ ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM AT PELLA (11/26/2)
believers for their financial assistance in his ministry (4:10-20). This is the concept that occupies our attention in this study. How does Paul express his gratitude? What does he say? Expressing His Gratitude As Paul moved to conclude the Letter to the Philippians, he acknowledged the financial support they had sent him. He stated, “when I left Macedonia, no church shared with me in the matter of giving and receiving except you alone” (v. 15). Not only was the church in Philippi the only one to offer Paul support, they sent help on more than one occasion: “even in Thessalonica you sent gifts for my need several times” (v. 16). To demonstrate the depth of his gratitude, Paul used several terms that merit attention. For example, in Philippians 4:15, three words stand out. Those are the words translated as “account” (“matter” in csb), “giving,” and “receiving.” As New Testament scholar Peter O’Brien explained, these three words, “as well as others in the following verses, were key commercial terms.”2 At first glance, the use of distinctly financial terms in Philippians 4 should come as no surprise. In his other letters, Paul used similar terms to communicate specific concepts or truths for believers. For instance, in writing to the Christians in Rome, Paul used the Greek term opheilo. He wrote, “Do not owe anyone anything, except to love one another, for the one who loves another has fulfilled the law” (Rom. 13:8, emphasis added). In this passage, Paul had just urged the believers in Rome to “pay to all what is owed to them: taxes to whom taxes are owed, revenue to whom revenue is 12 BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR / FALL 2019
Above: Cache of silver coins found in the region of Pella. Right: Column, which likely stood in the synagogue at Capernaum, Israel; the inscription reads, “Alpheus the son of Zebidah the son of John made this column. May it be for him a blessing.” This inscription gave credit to one who contributed financially to building the synagogue.
owed, respect to whom respect is owed, honor to whom honor is owed” (v. 7, esv). Now he directed them to owe nothing but love. Paul went “beyond the payment of debts in the ordinary sense to the thought of a debt that can never be discharged, the debt of love.”3 Writing to believers living at Colossae, Paul said, “He [God] erased the certificate of debt, with its obligations, that was against us and opposed to us, and has taken it away by nailing it to the cross” (Col. 2:14). The word translated “certificate of debt” comes from a Greek term that describes a “handwritten statement, especially a record of financial accounts.”4 Using familiar imagery, Paul explained how God has erased the believers’ debt by taking that written account and nailing it to the cross. In Philippians 4, then, Paul used three commercial terms to help express his gratitude. The first term, eis logos, is in the phrase, “shared with me in the matter”
ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ DAVID ROGERS/ THE ORIENTAL INSTITUTE MUSEUM / UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO (425/24)
Above: Limestone tablet, partially broken, details a creditor’s plea for
The Egnatian Way as it runs through Philippi. Paul would have taken this route through Philippi. ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BOB SCHATZ (11/19/2)
(Phil. 4:15, emphasis added). The esv translators rendered the concept as “entered into partnership” (emphasis added). According to O’Brien, this Greek term “was a technical phrase meaning ‘to the account of,’ being used of business transactions in Greek literature and the papyri.”5 The other financial words were derived from the Greek terms dosis and lempsis, which translated “giving” and “receiving” respectively. These “are words that belong to the commercial vocabulary of the ancient world, and refer to the debit and credit sides of the ledger.”6 Paul used these two terms to communicate a beautiful spiritual reality. He was telling the Philippian believers that the gifts they sent “were an investment in the work of God and in their future.”7 For Paul, then, the real issue was not the gift that the believers at Philippi had sent. He made this clear when he claimed: “I know both how to make do with
justice; a debtor had broken his promises to repay a jar of fat. The
tablet is dated to Egypt’s 20th Dynasty (1186– 1069 BC).
little, and I know how to make do with a lot. In any and all circumstances I have learned the secret of being content—whether well fed or hungry, whether in abundance or in need” (v. 12). Paul’s real interest was what happened to the Philippian believers’ account. He wrote: “Not that I seek the gift, but I seek the profit that is increasing to your account” (v. 17). Paul understood that their giving resulted in benefits for them. Even if it looked like they might be lacking something, Paul reminded them that “my God will supply all your needs according to his riches in glory in Christ Jesus” (v. 19). Paul’s message, especially with its financial terminology, would have resonated with those living in Philippi. It was a wealthy city. Gold mines were located in the nearby city of Alysa. Further, Philippi’s location on the Via Egnatia, the major trade route through the area, brought an abundance of commerce and wealth to the city. Indeed, Paul’s readers, be they rich or poor, would have understood and appreciated Paul’s use of financial terminology. I 1. Unless otherwise indicated, all Scripture quotations are from the Christian Standard Bible (CSB). 2. Peter T. O’Brien, The Epistle to the Philippians: A Commentary on the Greek Text, The New International Greek Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991), 539. 3. Leon Morris, The Epistle to the Romans, Pillar New Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988), 467. 4. “33.40 ceiro/grafon“ (cheirographon, handwritten statement) in Johannes P. Louw and Eugene A. Nida, Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament Based on Semantic Domains, vol. 1, 2nd ed. (New York: United Bible Societies, 1989), 394. 5. O’Brien, 533. 6. Gerald F. Hawthorne, Philippians, vol. 43, Word Biblical Commentary (Waco: Word, 1983), 204. 7. Richard R. Melick, Jr., Philippians, Colossians, Philemon, vol. 32, The New American Commentary (Nashville: Broadman, 1991), 157.
Shawn L. Buice is professor of New Testament and Greek at The Baptist College of Florida, Graceville, Florida. LIFEWAY.COM/BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR
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ETB: Ephesians 4:11-16
EVERY
WIND OF
BY BENNIE R. CROCKETT, JR.
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DOCTRINE
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HILDREN, TOSSED to and fro, and carried about with every wind of doctrine” (Eph. 4:14, kjv) remains one of the most memorable translations of any text from Paul. For almost 500 years, major English Bibles from the William Tyndale Bible through the English Standard Version have included the phrase.1 Yet, the Greek word translated “doctrine” in this verse (didaskalia) also refers to “teaching” as shown in the niv, hcsb, and csb translations with “every wind of teaching.”2 Elsewhere, Paul used didaskalia for the content of sound Christian teaching.3 “Every wind of doctrine” could have referred to deceitful doctrines proposed about Jesus’ identity or to prominent non-Christian teachings in Ephesus and western Asia Minor. Either way, alternative, deceptive, and distracting teachings threatened the Ephesians’ maturity in the fullness of Christ. Christianity in One Sentence The Greek text of Ephesians 4:11-16 is one sentence of 124 words4 in which Paul affirmed God’s gift of various people to equip believers for the work of ministry or service. Foundational for that collective ministry, however, is “unity in the faith and in the knowledge of God’s Son” so that believers would “no longer be little children, tossed by the waves and blown around by every wind of teaching” (vv. 13,14).5
With unity both in faith and in the knowledge of God’s Son, believers should “grow in every way into him who is the head—Christ” (v. 15). Despite the clarity of Christianity’s essence in verses 11-16, identifying the content of “every wind of teaching” is difficult. Clues from ancient Ephesus and western Asia Minor illustrate the Ephesian Christians’ background worldview that possibly contributed to the development of “every wind of doctrine.” What was that background? Epicenter of Early Christianity In the early church’s missionary expansion, Ephesus became a central city. Paul spent three years teaching and preaching to both Jews and Greeks in Ephesus and western Asia Minor (Acts 19:10,26; 20:31). While in Ephesus, Paul encountered both Jewish magic and GrecoRoman polytheistic paganism at its height. Many who became believing Christians had previously practiced magic with spells recorded in their magic books (19:18-19). Ancient Greek texts have survived revealing varied pronunciations for God’s name “Yahweh.”6 By comparison, the sons of Sceva believed that Jesus’ name had magical powers if invoked in a particular manner (vv. 13-14). Others—possibly Gentiles— involved in magic in Ephesus, confessed faith in Christ, gave up their
magic, and publicly burned their magic books, which likely contained spells (v. 19). Along with pagan Plutarch (ad 100), Christian Clement of Alexandria (ad 200) referenced the “Ephesian Letters” (pagan magical formulas).7 Plutarch used the Greek word periergos (“magic,” Acts 19:19) for magical ceremonies associated with the orgiastic cult of Dionysus, which Thracian women practiced in northeastern Greece (Eph. 4:19).8 As a major imperial city, Ephesus boasted Greek and Roman pagan cults. Most famous, however, was the cult of Artemis (Acts 19:23-37; Latin “Diana” in the kjv), the pagan goddess of hunting and protector of young girls. The Ephesian Temple to Artemis was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and Artemis became known as a mother goddess. Idols of Artemis have been discovered throughout the ancient Roman Empire. Warnings to Ephesus By the time Paul left Asia Minor in the mid-50s, the Ephesian church had developed a leadership structure with “elders” (presbyteros, Acts 20:17) and “overseers” (episkopos, v. 28). Paul wrote to churches in western Asia Minor, to the Ephesians, to the Colossians (100 miles east of Ephesus); plus he had personal knowledge of believers in Laodicea (80 miles east of Ephesus; Col. 4:15-16).
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At Ephesus, a lone column is all that remains at the Temple of Artemis. The temple was built and rebuilt several times. Croesus, the Lydian king of Sardis, began the most impressive reconstruction in 560 BC. The marble Ionic temple, which measured 425 x 230 feet, stood until the end of the 3rd cent. AD.
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Far right: Bust of Plutarch at his hometown of Chaeronea, Greece. A Greek philosopher and priest at Delphi, Plutarch lived about AD 46–120.
known philosopher from Miletus was Thales (ca. 624– 546 BC), who is considered to be the father of modern philosophy.
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Ruins of the northern agora at Miletus, which was a center for Greek philosophy and scientific thought. Perhaps the best-
Right: Bust of Pythagoras, the Greek mathematician and philiospher.
provoked Paul to encourage the Ephesians toward unity (Eph. 4:1-6,13). Such divisiveness contributed to the growing Gnosticism of the late first and second centuries. Ignatius of Antioch (ad 35-107) also encouraged unity in the churches of Asia Minor.11 Early adherents of Gnosticism claimed special godly knowledge (1 Cor. 8:1-7; 1 John 2:4), and others claimed that Jesus only appeared to be a human (1 John 4:2-3; 2 John 7).12 People in nearby Colossae seemingly had similar ideas calling forth Paul’s striking remark that “God was pleased to have all his fullness dwell in him” (Col. 1:19). ODYSSES/ CREATIVE COMMONS ATTRIBUTION-SHARE ALIKE 3.0 UNPORTED
Pagan Idols and Deities In addition to the “great Artemis” idol (Acts 19:35) and the excess of imperial polytheistic shrines, non-Christians also asserted the emperors’ divinity in Asia Minor. On inscriptions, Caesar Augustus (Luke 2:1) received the title “son of god” in Pergamum (110 miles north of Ephesus), Priene (33 miles
south of Ephesus), on the island of Cos (120 miles south of Ephesus), and in Paul’s hometown of Tarsus.9 Revelation 2:6 and 15 indicate that Nicolaitans were in both Ephesus and Pergamum toward the end of the first century ad. The Nicolaitans apparently practiced the worship of idols along with sexual immorality (Rev. 2:14-15). Around ad 185, Irenaeus of Lyons (modern-day Lyon, France) remarked that the Nicolaitans practiced “unrestrained indulgence.”10 Pagans who became Christians likely brought their divided polytheistic loyalties into the church, which
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Additionally, Philemon may have been part of the Colossian church (Col. 4:9-10,14,17; Philem. 1-2,10,23). Paul warned the Ephesian leaders that “savage wolves” would appear in the church and rise up to “distort the truth” (Acts 20:29,30). Possibly, that distortion relates to “every wind of teaching.” By the time Paul wrote to Timothy, false teachers in Ephesus had begun to debate “myths and endless genealogies” (1 Tim. 1:4; see 4:7; 2 Tim. 4:4; Titus 1:14), but Paul encouraged Timothy to avoid “irreverent and empty speech and contradictions from what is falsely called knowledge” (1 Tim. 6:20).
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ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BOB SCHATZ/ ROYAL ONTARIO MUSEUM/ TORONTO (29/16/19) ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BOB SCHATZ/ ROYAL ONTARIO MUSEUM/ TORONTO (29/17/6)
Above: Gnostic seal that depicts the god Horus surrounded by animals. Horus was the Egyptian god of the sky, war, and hunting. Upper right: At Laodicea, the archways in the top tier of the smaller of two theaters in the city.
Lower right: This Jewish incantation bowl has an Aramaic script that asks for protection for a particular man. People had superstitious beliefs about these bowls. A protective spell was written on the inside of each bowl, which was then buried upside down. This action had two purposes: the spell supposedly would ward off evil spirits, and the bowl served as a trap for any demons that came near.
Other Winds of Teaching Added to the religious confusion, Ephesus and western Asia Minor were the locus of classical Greek philosophy’s birth. In the sixth century bc, philosophers in Miletus (45 miles south of Ephesus; Acts 20:15,17) speculated about the content of the material world’s primary substance. For instance, Thales suggested water with a world full of deities;13 Anaximenes, air;14 and Anaximander, that which is unlimited.15 These early speculations preceded Heraclitus, the Greek philosopher of Ephesus (wrote around 500 bc), who attempted to explain change. Heraclitus famously remarked once, “One cannot step into the same river twice.”16 He went on to affirm that fire was the primary substance while arguing that logos (“Reason” or “Law”) is that which exists and holds all reality into pantheistic unity. Heraclitus’s doctrine of logos stands in contrast to John 1:1-5—also of likely Ephesian origin, though 600 years later— wherein John identified the logos as the Word who was God, who created the universe, and who became flesh
ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ DAVID ROGERS (5/8/7)
disunity and lack of knowledge of Jesus, God’s Son. I
and revealed the Father (John 1:14,18; 5:17-20; 10:32-38; 14:9). Other ancient teachers with connection to Ephesus included Pythagoras of Samos (6th cent. bc; Acts 20:15) who argued that numbers were the essence of reality17 and Anaxagoras of Clazomenae (5th cent. bc) who argued that nous (“mind”) gave order to reality.18 Paul, however, used nous to remind the Ephesians that they should “be renewed in the spirit of your minds” (Eph. 4:17,23, emphasis added; Rom. 12:2). Maturity in Christ’s Fullness Ephesians 4:11-16 reveals that early believers could stray from church unity and the knowledge of God’s Son. Roman polytheism and early forms of Gnosticism potentially overflowed into divisions within the Ephesian church, and the fullness of Jesus’ identity as God’s only Son faced continual challenges from these sources. Paul, however, affirmed that Christian growth into the head— Christ—prevents “every wind of doctrine” that contributes to church
1. See the following translations: William Tyndale (1526, 1534), Myles Coverdale (1535), Geneva Bible (1560), Bishops’ Bible (1568), King James Bible (1611), English Revised Version (1881), American Standard Version (1901), Revised Standard Version (1946, 1971), New American Standard Bible (1971, 1995), and New Revised Standard Version (1989). 2. See the following translations: Good News Bible (1966, 1992), New International Version (1973, 2011), Holman Christian Standard Bible (1999, 2009), and Christian Standard Bible (CSB, 2017). Unless noted otherwise, all Scripture quotations are from the CSB. 3. See Rom. 12:7; 1 Tim. 1:10; 4:6,13,16; 5:17; 6:1,3; 2 Tim. 3:10,16; 4:3; Titus 1:9; 2:1,7,10. 4. Novum Testamentum Graeca, Nestle-Aland, 28th rev. ed., Barbara and Kurt Aland, et al. (Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 2012), 596–97. 5. For similar language, see James 1:6; Jude 12-13. 6. See G. Adolf Deissmann, “Greek Transcriptions of the Tetragrammaton,” in Bible Studies, trans. Alexander Grieve, 2nd ed. (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1903), 321–36. 7. Plutarch, Moralia, Table Talk 7.4; Clement of Alexandria, Stromata 5.8. 8. Plutarch, Alexander 2.5. 9. Adolf Deissmann, Light from the Ancient East, trans. Lionel R. M. Strachan, 2nd ed. (New York: Hodder and Stoughton, 1909), 350–51; W. R. Paton and E. L. Hicks, The Inscriptions of Cos (Oxford: Clarendon, 1891), 131. 10. Irenaeus, Against Heresies 1.26.3, in Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 1, ed. Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson (1885; Reprint, Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1994), 352. 11. Ignatius, Ephesians 4.2; 5.1; Philadelphians 5.2; 8:1; 9:1; Smyrnaeans 12.2. 12. Ignatius, Ephesians 7.2; Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 6.12.6. 13. Diogenes Laertius, Lives of the Eminent Philosophers 1.5.27. 14. Ibid., 2.2.3. 15. Ibid., 2.1.1. 16. Plato, Cratylus 402A; writer’s translation. 17. Diogenes Laertius, Lives of the Eminent Philosophers 8.1.25. 18. Ibid., 2.3.6.
Bennie R. Crockett, Jr., is professor of religion and philosophy and is co-director of the Center for Study of the Life and Work of William Carey at William Carey University, Hattiesburg, Mississippi. LIFEWAY.COM/BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR
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