MaCHU PICCHU EXPERIENCE THE TRAILS LIKE THEIR CREATORS
martin st-amant
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9 andrew dunn
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Creature Feature “Living Fossils”
featured contributor Magda Lizeth Almeida Zavala Originally from Chihuahua, Chihuahua, Mexico, Magda is studying International Relations in Mexico City at El Instituto Tecnológico de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey (ITESM).
Issue 3 Winter 2012
45
IN THIS ISSUE: Zuñi Pueblo Architecture
18 24 How did people practice astronomy without a telescope?
26
26 pd-us
An ancient architectural style that continues in pueblos today. Sommer Smith
Technoculture
Is culture being vaporized by technology? magda almeida
Following the Stars Through the Eyes of the Past How the ancients did astronomy.
& How Will The World End
34
Perspectives of cultures beyond the Maya. margaret Smith
2012: IS THIS THE END? MELANIE E MAGDALENA JOSE-PIERRE ESTRADA
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36
From Self-Defense to Recreation
When weapons become a game karen meza cherit
DEPARTMENTS TIME TO END THE 6 From the Editor WORLD AGAIN Staff This Issue’s Cover was made possible by NASA.
editor-in-chief & creative director publisher director of donor relations
Melanie E Magdalena BermudaQuest Fidel Junco
9 12 48 54
Creature Feature Around the World Sites to See Review It
6 | ORIGINS
From the editor... This year has gone by so fast. It feels like just yesterday when I began Origins, and here we are at the third one. Ironically enough while putting togther this issue, we were digging up some information about the people that started saying the world was going to end this year. It turns out that many believe that a cataclysmic event will destroy mankind on December 21, 2012. (I don’t want to spoil the punch line of the issue, but skip to page 36 for more on 2012ers.) I bet that Hurricane Sandy will become a new sign that the end is near. We would all like to send our condolences to those who lost loved ones, homes, jobs, and more during the hurricane. As most of you know, Origins is just getting started and we’ve been trying out a few different things in these first issues. We added Review It last time; this time we’re debuting Creature Feature. As you know by now, not everything in this magazine is about archaeology (though that is what inspired this project). Our heritage goes beyond material remains of past and present people – wildlife, the solar system, and beyond are part of our lives. Our Origins are rooted in a complex history of the universe. We just happened to end up on Earth. In order to piece back together a puzzle humans have barely been a part of is tricky. It takes research, dedication, and experimentation. The BermudaQuest Foundation promotes all of this, plus preservation of our heritage and public awareness. I’d like to ask all of you to become sponsors for this cause. Personally, I’d be very angry if someone came into my backyard and started digging up treasure that belonged to my ancestors. The entire world is our backyard and this happens every day; every day more history is lost due to greedy destruction. It’s time to take back our history – it’s time to rediscover where we came from! Melanie E Magdalena Editor-in-Chief editor@bermudaquest.com
CONTRIBUTORS MAGDA LIZETH ALMEIDA ZAVALA Undergraduate studying International Relations at El Instituto Tecnológico de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey (ITESM). JOSE-PIERRE ESTRADA Anthropology undergraduate teaching others that there is more to life than meets the eye. FIDEL JUNCO Specialist in marine animals and other exotic reptiles, birds, and amphibians. KAREN MEZA CHERIT Undergraduate studying Business Management at El Instituto Tecnológico de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey (ITESM). MARGARET SMITH With a background of history and communications, he enjoys watching current affairs and politics. SOMMER SMITH Intern at Archinia studying architecture in New Mexico.
THANK YOU JEFF BRIGGLER from the Missouri Department of Conservation for helping us start “Creature Feature” LUCCA HENRION for sponsoring this issue DEDE WATKINS for your never-ending support
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8 | ORIGINS
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Creature Feature The Hellbender
Fidel Junco
A bad rap or a case of mistaken identity.
The hellbender is a species of giant salamander (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis) endemic to eastern North America. There are two other giant salamander species, the Chinese salamander (Andrias davidianus) and the Japanese salamander (Andrias japonicas). These true giants of the amphibian world can reach up to five feet in length and can weigh more than one hundred pounds. These creatures are considered living fossils since either they or their ancestors have been around for more than 65 million years. The fossil record for the Cryptobranchidae shows an Asian origin for the family; there is quite a bit of scientific interest regarding how this species made it to the eastern United States. Hypotheses about their arrival include a dispersal via land bridge-based theory and scientists have noted the waves of adaptive radiation that seem to have swept the Americas from north to south.
Why the Hellbender?
About the Hellbender
The Missouri Department of Conservation says: “The name ‘hellbender’ probably comes from the animal’s odd look. Perhaps it was named by the settlers who thought ‘it was a creature from hell bent on returning.’ Another rendition says the undulating skin of a hellbender reminded observers of ‘horrible tortures of the infernal regions.’ In reality it’s a harmless aquatic salamander.”
These aquatic salamanders have a wide, flat head with tiny eyes and a broad and compressed rudder like tail. Their bodies and legs are covered with prominent folds of skin. Coloration is a combination of browns or grayish browns and turn reddish during their breeding season. They average about two feet in length (60 centimeters).
It’s name is derived from ancient Greek kryptos (hidden) and branchus (gill) – this explains their unique respiratory system that involves cutaneous gas exchange through capillaries found in their dorsoventral folds.
The hellbender is considered a “habitat specialist” since it is extremely adapted to fill a specific niche within a very specific environment. Dissolved oxygen, temperature, and flow of water are the core to their success. This in turn limits their choice of habitat spectrum. By BermudaQuest
10 | ORIGINS
Conservation Status In most of the 16 states where they are found, hellbenders fall under three categories; rare, threatened or endangered. Due to a 75% decline in populations of the Ozark hellbender subspecies (C. bishopi) which inhabits the White River in Missouri and the Spring River system in Arkansas, the species has been listed under the U. S. endangered species act. Most long living aquatic species require clean, clear, cool water and a stable habitat for their survival. Potential threats can include toxic contamination of river systems that may interfere with the reproductive cycle, in stream gravel mining and access to rivers by cattle which increase siltation and nitrification. The indiscriminate killing of hellbenders by anglers, river users, as well as the illegal pet trade has ultimately contributed to the drastically decline in their populations. With reduced numbers and fewer young, hellbenders could become extinct within 20 years in parts of their range which include Missouri and Arkansas. To make matters worse, researchers have found a alarming number of specimens with minor to severe deformities in the form of lost or fused toes, missing limbs, missing eyes and external tumors. Studies are underway to document the types of deformities and probable causes. People must be made aware that hellbenders are a major indicator of the overall health of a water ecosystem. Not only do they fill a particular niche both as predator and prey, controlling crayfish populations but also in terms of alerting us that whatever is contributing to their decline can also affect other species including ours. On a more positive note, the Ozark hellbender was successfully bred in captivity thanks to a collaboration between the Missouri Department of Conservation and the St. Louis Zoo. Cryptobranchidae fossil, Andrias scheuchzeri (Scheuchzer’s Giant Salamander) These creatures are among the family of Giant Salamanders (the largest amphibians known today) and live in the eastern United States, China, and Japan. Photo Credits: H. Zell | CC BY-SA 3.0 (above), Brian Gratwicke | CC BY-SA 2.0 (page 9), Kerry Wixted | CC BY-SA 2.0 (page 11) www.origins-magazine.com
The giant salamanders are the largest amphibians in their respective major biopolitical regions thus making them conservation icons, not only for their threatened status but also for the sustainable management of water sheds. Sustainable management requires providing the broadest range of educational material that relates to both public interest and species conservation. Ultimately, the goal is to develop technical approaches to species conservation that can get the required political and financial support (Browne et al. 2012). Hellbenders are part of a healthy aquatic ecosystem. The Missouri Department of Conservation says, “They have been on our continent for more than six million years and are a unique part of our wildlife heritage.� By BermudaQuest
CREATURE FEATURE | 11
A Little Hellbender Trivia 1. The hellbender can shock you much like an electric eel.
□ True
□ False
2. People are working in the Ozark region documenting changes in the hellbender population.
□ True
□ False
3. The largest hellbenders can weigh up to 100 pounds at 5 feet long.
□ True
□ False
4. Hellbenders make great pets since they require constantly flowing, cool water.
□ True
□ False
5. We protect species on our planet that need our help, and the hellbender deserves our help.
□ True
□ False
Answer key: 1, false; 2, true; 3, true; 4, false; 5, you decide
Although conservation efforts are being made to preserve this amazingly rare species, more can be done. You can help save the hellbender as well as other sensitive species from extinction. Any donations made will help provide grants for research and conservation efforts. Donations can be sent to BermudaQuest Foundation via PayPal on our website:
or via check or money order to: BermudaQuest PMB190 2800 E. Whitestone Blvd. Ste. 120 Cedar Park, Tx 78613
We would like to specially thank herpetologist Jeff Briggler at the Missouri Department of Conservation. Look for our next Creature Feature in Origins | Spring 2013 and help save the hellbender.
For more information Browne, R. K. et al. (2012). The giant salamanders (Cryptobranchidae): Part A. palaeontology, phylogeny, genetics, and morphology. Amphibian and Reptile Conservation 5(4):17-29. Conservation Commission of the State of Missouri. (2004). The Hellbender. [Brochure] Johnson, T. R. and J. Briggler: Authors. “Hellbender.” MCDonline. Available at: mdc.mo.gov/node/982 By BermudaQuest
eric c bryan cc by-sa 2.0
Lang
How did this all begin? At what point in time did the first humans realize that the vibrations in their throats produced a sound they could manipulate? When did language become written so words and thoughts could become visual? Why did some people choose to never develop a written language? At what point in time did grunts and howls become today’s consonants and vowels we could never live without?
guage Jose-Pierre Estrada
Words Lost In Time
Language is defined in many ways; the method of human communication, either spoken or written, consisting of the use of words in a structured and conventional way, A system for communicating. From what we all can see, language can be seen as a coding system by which information is transmitted between two or more communicators. We give emotions and physical things a word that symbolizes it and is universally known. For example the word dog symbolizes the animal. Then you have the word dog in different languages: perro, hond, sobaka, inja which all refer back to the same animal. Other than words, a set of social conventions determines how people interpret what is said. Take for example the statement “I feel like taking Sam to lunch again”, one would think the speaker has previously taken Sam for lunch, but it could also mean that the speaker has previously wanted to take Sam out to lunch. So when did language begin? Did early members of the genus Homo communicate is some way? Did Neanderthals speak to one another? They had larger brains than us, but did they have a proper voice box? What came first writing or speech? There is no clear evidence if the Neanderthals had a form of language but it is probable they did communicate. Not with communication such as “how are you today” but more likely with easy syllables that were attached to significant objects or natural sounds. They could have easily incorporated body movements to precede their imitations of natural sounds such as buzz and meow, technically referred to as onomatopoeia or echoism. As we trace back the many languages we hit a dead end at about 12,000 years ago. Does this mean languages didn’t exist before then? No. we just don’t have the evidence that provides a use of language before then. But what we can assume is that written symbols have been around before then. Cave drawing such as the ones from the cave Altamira in Spain date back to as far as 25,000 to 35,000 years old. This proves the people of Altamira had an artistic way to symbolize what they saw or events that took place during their time, but no traces of verbal communication.
16 | ORIGINS
What if you were the last human on Earth that only knew English? Or Spanish? How would you feel knowing that no other human would understand you? Boa Sr. of the Andaman Island, a territory of India, had to live with this feeling for decades. The ancient language of Aka-Bo, know to date back to pre-neolithic, became extinct as the last speaker Boa Sr. passed away. The danger of the language was aware at the time and the language was closely studied by researchers of linguistics, but only Boa Sr. was the one that could comprehend. Members of interrelated tribes found the language uncomprehendable. No one could understand the songs and stories shared by the woman in her 80s.
“With the death of Boa Sr and the extinction of the Bo language, a unique part of human society is now just a memory. Boa’s loss is a bleak reminder that we must not allow this to happen to the other tribes of the Andaman Islands.” – Survival International’s director, Stephen Corry
In the USA, Native American speakers were punished for speaking their languages in schools until the 1960s. Repression from larger groups is an ongoing process today, in Greenland; the Kalaallisut is dying away under pressure from Danish. In Turkey, Ethic Kurds are forbidden by law to teach or print their language. Another way languages become forgotten over the years is when bigger and more common languages spread, children whose parents know a smaller lesser used language often grow up learning the dominant language which always tends to be anything but the small language. Today the most common 80 languages make up 80 percent of languages used and the rest of the ~7000 languages spoken today make up the remaining
“We were all there when the earthquake came. The eldest told us the Earth would part, don’t run away or move.” – Boa Sr. How do languages such as Aka-Bo become extinct? Languages of powerful groups spread while the languages of smaller cultures decline. Genocide or conquest is one of the most common causes. Official language policies are placed when “higher prestige” cultures overtake a smaller on. For instance, in Bolivia exists a higher language diversity than all of Europe, which we all know has a history in imperial powers.
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tkgd2007/jose manuel benitos/melanie e magdalena/jose-pi
WORDS LOST IN TIME | 17
The Latest Extinctions
Akkala Sami, a language spoken in the Sami villages of A´kkel and Cu´kksuâl in the Kola Peninsula of Russia became extinct when the last speaker Marja Sergina died in 2003. There are descriptions of Akkala Sami phonology and morphology, published texts, and audio recordings, but the Akkala Sami language remains among the most poorly documented Sami languages. Sowa was the original language of south-central Pentecost island in Vanuatu. In recent times it has been displaced by Apma, a neighbouring language. The depopulation of Pentecost that occurred after the introduction of European diseases, men from Sowa-speaking areas were forced to marry women from other parts of Pentecost, who were mostly Apma speakers. As a result, by the 1960s, Apma had replaced Sowa as the dominant local language. The last native Sowa speaker, Maurice Tabi of Vanvat village, died in 2000. Since the termination of Sowa, more have followed: Gaagudja (Australia), Eyak (USA), AkaKora and Aka-Bo (India), Cochin Indo-Portuguese Creole (India), and this year (2012) Cromarty in Northern Scotland.
ierre estrada
percentage. As time progresses, ancestral languages are forgotten and fall out of use. This has been occurring throughout human history and the rate of language disappearance is accelerating dramatically.
Every 15 days one of the several thousand languages that exist goes extinct. Most of them will go unrecorded and taking with them a wealth of knowledge of their history and culture, lost in translation. B
National Geographic’s Enduring Voices Program The Enduring Voices program documents the planets endangered languages. The team collaborates with the Living Tongues Institute for Endangered Languages to preserve the culture and languages of unique and threatened places in our world. One way they preserve the language is through Talking Dictionaries. These talking dictionaries give listeners around the world a chance to hear some of the most little-known sounds of languages. With the help of several communities and an interested public, we can only hope to lower the rate in which languages disappear or at least document them so they’re not forgotten. Join the cause and find out more! ► travel.nationalgeographic.com/travel/enduring-voices/ ► www.livingtongues.com | gnu fdl
By BermudaQuest
~ Zuni Pueblo Architecture
18 | ORIGINS
First terrace of Zuni, New Mexico, showing ladders and utensil
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ZUNI ARCHITECTURE | 19
o e
ls,
Sommer Smith Zuñi Pueblo Architecture can be quickly imagined; it is the terraced, multistoried, adobe plastered pueblo icon that we know so well. Many of the traditional architectural elements used by the Zuñi peoples have been re-integrated and re-used throughout the southwest in contemporary architecture. That’s part of why it seems so familiar. But this tradition has not survived solely for its simple elegance. Zuñi architecture is highly adapted to the Southwestern climate. The materials are accessible, functional, aesthetic, and sustainable, which make for an enduring architectural tradition.
1879 | John K Hillers
The Zuñi people can be traced back as far as 2500 B.C. in what is today Western New Mexico and Eastern Arizona. The tribe still resides in this same area, the reservation encompassing about 450,000 acres. Early peoples inhabiting this area were nomadic big game hunters, and beginning in 900 A.D. settlement began with the construction of early pueblos. There were many phases of technological and architectural advances between the Basketmaker Period (0-700 A.D.) and the Pueblo IV Period (1300-1500A.D.), however the Zuñi people maintained many of their traditional building practices and preparation rites. Growth in population was a major cause for change, shifting Zuñi architecture from small houses to large, plaza-oriented villages. Some pueblos were abandoned due to lack of water, warfare, or disease. Despite multiple migrations, the Zuñi architectural tradition stayed intact, evolving with advancements in tools, technical abilities, and changing with the population’s growth. Not only were the Zuñi constantly confronting a difficult, arid climate where each season’s summer monsoons dictated their survival, they were also constantly vigilant of warring tribes, and with surviving hard winters when crops were scarce. The Zuñi addressed each of these concerns by adapting their architecture and utilizing what their natural environ-
ment had to offer to fit their needs; they were—and still are—vastly familiar with their climate and resources. However, the land and its resources are not simply appreciated by the Zuñi for their utility. Earth, air, fire and water are embodied in and integral to their spiritual world, and the incorporation of natural elements in their homes and community spaces are significant as symbolic representations of their origins.1 Zuñi architecture has two specific forms: the valley pueblo and the mesa pueblo, each with their particular advantages and disadvantages. Mesa pueblos were defensible. Entry was limited, and the high perch facilitated observation of the surrounding area. However, they were, by design, very difficult to access—even for the inhabitants themselves—and farming had to be done at a distance. Valley pueblos afforded the advantage of convenient access to fertile farmland, however, these settlements had to depend on ___________________________ 1 The Zuñi creation story tells of two mythic twins, called Pekónghoya, who led humankind to emerge from the lower worlds to our world, the fourth plane. Upon the final ascent to earth, the twins directed the array of families to their dwelling locations and dictated their respective building methods, whether it was lodges, huts or windbreaks. The Zuñi thus emerged, literally, from the earth. By BermudaQuest
20 | ORIGINS
a more complex, fortress-like architecture to maintain adequate protection. The Zuñi used a method of building similar to that of Chaco Canyon, using masonry to construct supporting walls. Flat stones are wedged together using smaller stones to support and fill in the voids, and then only small amount of mortar made from clay is needed to stabilize the structure. The method is called “chinking”. Earchstucco, associated with the female energy, is then applied to the exterior, offering additional support and protection against weather. Women traditionally complete this task on the interior and exterior of all pueblo structures. Women were traditionally the homeowners, and rights passed down through the matrilineal line. As daughters marry, the family builds upwards to accommodate her new family unit, creating the terraced construction characteristic of the Zuñi pueblos. The terraces serve as spaces for familial and work activities such as preparing meals and preserving/drying foodstuffs for the winter. Community and familial life is intrinsic to Zuñi culture—a value that is reflected in their architecture. There is not always a way to provision the number of levels to be built to accommodate a growing family. The ground walls were not always capable of sustaining the strain of upper levels of sometimes two, three, or even four additional stories. Mesa pueblos often had few, if any, trees within a convenient distance, so timber was employed primarily as a structural support and for ladders. In early pueblos, wood was rarely used in any kind of decorative form. Locally predominant species of trees, like pine and cottonwood, were used to support the earthen roofs and the floors of additional stories above. The beams, or vigas, as they came to be known after the arrival of the Spanish, were prepared first by removing the bark. They were then each placed on the walls approximately two feet apart, with smaller wood supports set perpendicularly on top. Above those were laid reeds or small willows, and then additional grass was applied. Lastly, the framework is covered with earth and trodden down. The heavy, life-giving rains of the monsoon season, while both necessary for survival and spiritual www.origins-magazine.com
in meaning, presented architectural challenges for the Zuñi. Adobe brick is rarely used in Zuñi construction—they preferred stone masonry, which was not soluble and was easily accessible in their immediate environment. Adobe plastering coated their exteriors, which weathers quickly and must be redone annually, a process the Spanish called “enjarre.” The roofs made of clay were often unprotected, and could virtually “melt” in a driving rain, which also presented challenges. The Zuñi employ a variety of methods to minimize structural damage during the rains. Pottery fragments and stones are used around areas that experience heavy water flow. Stone and wood drains, called canales, divert water from the wall, helping to preserve the adobe stucco on the exterior, and preventing water from collecting on the roofs. A white gypsum wash is applied to protect areas with particularly heavy water contact. The Zuñi had very little furniture in their dwellings, however they integrated furniture-like elements into homes that were part of the initial phase of construction. A characteristic wooden beam is incorporated into the masonry of the walls across the lateral of the home at about four to five feet above the floor, and is used to hang blankets and clothing. Mealing troughs were also an integral element, and are probably the most important article of furni-
ZUNI ARCHITECTURE | 21
ture in the pueblo home. These consist of 3 troughs made of thin slabs of sandstone set into the floor on edge to provide workers with a more favorable angle for mealing. The ground floor rarely had doors; these rooms were accessed through a roof hatch. Archaeologists suspect that the lower levels were traditionally used as storehouses for foodstuffs rather than habitation. As time passed and the threat of attack was reduced, lower rooms were converted to dwelling rooms by adding an entryway. Doors were utilized on the upper levels, however they were very small openings. Some believe that this was a defense tactic, however, it most probably was a method of retaining heat. Small doors were more easily covered with hides or blankets in the winter (wood was rarely used for doors). The Zu単i addressed the mobility questions this created by employing a doorsill that
By BermudaQuest
22 | ORIGINS
was short enough to step over with relative ease. In the more ancient pueblos, terraces and entryways rarely faced out from the pueblo. The construction was focused around a number of entrances that lead to the center of the pueblo creating a plaza-like formation that provided the village with strict access control and a centrally focused community gathering space. On the exterior of the tightly packed pueblo, windows were often built high up and very small as to not provide access www.origins-magazine.com
via the exterior. This also allowed these early architectural designers to manage the amount of glare from the ground into the spaces as well as minimizing the amount of air infiltration, making for a tighter construction that was easier to heat in the winter and keep cool in the summer. Traditional Zu単i pueblo architecture, as a whole, is influenced by a variety of factors. Their environment and the necessity for defense were some of the most influential concerns, however spiritual
ZUNI ARCHITECTURE | 23
and familial ties are also important and integral to their architectural practice. The land, from which they mythically emerged, provides the Zu単i with building materials and sustenance, but also requires them to adapt their architecture and life patterns to the weather and seasons. The need for protection informs their choices for building sites and pueblo composition, and the spiritual and familial aspects of pueblo life shape the interior and collective gathering spaces such as homes and kivas. The Zu単i used their natural defenses and
surroundings strategically and innovatively, and their traditions endure even today. This article is based on A Study of Pueblo Architecture in Tusayan and Cibola by Victor Mindeleff published most recently by Smithsonian Institute in 1989. The work was originally published in 1891 for the 8th annual report of the Bureau of Ethology for the years 1886-1887. Images were taken from the book with permission from the Smithsonian Institute. I By BermudaQuest
24 | ORIGINS
TECH NO CULTURE Magda Almeida
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TECHNOCULTURE | 25
david vignoni
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Ten years ago technology was not as common as it is today. Everywhere you go, everywhere you look, bright screens dominate our palms, laps, and walls. How many people actually realize the benefits and harms of this phenomenon? People should recognize good and bad influences in their lives. Unfortunately, there are people who do not realize how much they depend on the Internet and the latest high tech gadgets such as cell phones, tablets, computers, etc... If you were to ask an elderly individual “What did you live for in order to be happy?” some answers would be having good relationships with family and friends. There are studies that show people who have a satisfying social life are generally content with their lives. When you reach the age of a young adult you begin to choose relationships that will be a part of the rest of your life. According to psychiatrist Robert Arnstein, this selection process is an essential psychological task of commitment.
Social media is now involved: what happens to relationships when they are conducted primarily through computers, blogs, Facebook, Twitter, or any other digital messaging system? Pseudo-friendships begin to surface. Everyone has to tell everyone who they are, where they are, where they work, who they go out with, and such and all this information can potentially be a lie.The influence of technology on culture comes in many forms. In Spain the Institute for Culture and Technology at the University Carlos III of Madrid (UC3M) is conducting a study which reveals how readers are changing thanks to Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) where paper is changing to multimedia typing. There are some non-favorable aspects about technology, the main concern being that too much confidence is invested in it. Today an application exists – Impressions – that can interpret the meaning of digital messages sent by a partner or colleague. Impressions creates a story from your first kiss to tips for answering a message the boy or girl you like just sent. According to Audrey Melnik, the program is based on experiences and helps reduce anxiety caused by relationships. Impressions is not the only application that “helps with your relationship.” Everyday a new app comes out – knowledge is transferred over the Internet as an attempt to influence your love life, friendships, even family bonding. These mobile applications explain what the senders’ mean in their messages so you can effectively communicate back. No need to call your girlfriends now to help you answer that guy you have a crush on now – everything is going digital. Technological advancements are necessary in human evolution; however, we should not let technology replace in person communication. In time, we may all just become robots without our own rationale to decipher feelings and thoughts. At the end of the day, thinking for ourselves and feeling first hand what the world is like is what ultimately makes us human. I By BermudaQuest
nasa, esa, and j. maiz apellaniz (instituto de astrofisica de andalucia, spain)
following the sta through the ey
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ars yes of the past Margaret Smith By BermudaQuest
28 | ORIGINS
o
In Egyptian culture there was no such thing as myth, legend, or religion because their beliefs in their Gods and the stories of them were not simply ideological, but ingrained in their way of life to the point of if being fact. Looking at the structures Egypt has left behind the world can see how their mythology related to the stars. They built giant pyramids, temples, and other buildings to line up with the stars. Many of their myths correlated with what happened in the sky. The Milky Way was considered to be the god Ra being born by the sky goddess Nut; the constellation Orion was the representation of the god Osiris. Egyptians also correlated their structures with the equinoxes and solstices in order to predict harvest times and the flooding of the Nile River which played a large role in making Egyptian society stable by regulating the agriculture. The horizon played a large role by supplying Egyptians the idea of resurrection after death since they did not know where the sun went at night, but still rose again in the morning.
osiris by rama cc by-sa 2.0 â–ş
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ANCIENT ASTRONOMY | 29
By BermudaQuest
30 | ORIGINS
MESOP
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ANCIENT ASTRONOMY | 31
OTAMIA is the place where the oldest record of astronomy is found and like many cultures astronomy was used in order to explain events and rare incidents. They used the positioning of the stars as omens in order to guide political and social stand points. Like the Egyptians, the Mesopotamians used the stars to signal when to plant and harvest crops which were even used to make accurate agricultural calendars. Unlike the Egyptians though, Mesopotamians put a lot of effort into tracking the planet Venus. Through observation Mesopotamians tracked the phases of Venus and calculated a cycle of 587 days; making them only three days off modern day calculations, most likely because they tried to correlate the cycle to lunar phases. They were also able to predict lunar and solar eclipses from past observations. _____________________ sumerian cosmogonic myth tablet, â–ş ca. 1200 bce, louvre museum
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poulpy
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â—„ transit of venus 2012
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By BermudaQuest
32 | ORIGINS
Medieval Islamic astronomy is used throughout their culture and religion as well. Other than using the stars to determine harvest and planting times, they used them to navigate. Islamic astronomy was able to map out longitude and latitude of places within the Islamic nation to make travel easier on society. Religiously, the position of the sun was important to make sure that the five daily prayers were made at the proper times. Astrolabes (such as the one in the photo) could determine the ecliptic plane, the distance of celestial objects from the horizon, and even guide the astronomer in solving celectial equations with a trignometric chart.
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evan bench
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ANCIENT ASTRONOMY | 33
By BermudaQuest
34 | ORIGINS
How will the world end? According to Norse mythology the world will end in an epic battle they call Ragnarok. Loki the God of Mischief will rally the Giants and his three children Fenrir, Jormungand, and Hel to fight against the Aesir Gods and Goddesses who reside in Asgard. After total warfare has run its course the few who survive will begin to rebuild, eventually new courts will rise up and society will reform. Basically, the Earth will have a new beginning. Taking away the mythological references of Gods, Goddesses, Giants, and other monsters this is how many in the modern world expect the world to end. Compare it to the Cold War and how everyone thought that nuclear warfare might ensue and destroy the world. Even now people wonder when the next world war will take place and speculate that if one does start up that with our advanced technological weapons might cause humanity it self to be wiped out.
Odin und Fenriswolf Freyr und Surt by Emil Doepler (1855–1922) ca. 1905 ►
www.origins-magazine.com
HOW WILL THE WORLD END | 35
Native American cultures on the other hand view the end of the world in a completely different way. In a Cheyenne myth called The Gnawing the world is considered to be held up by a pole and Great White Grandfather Beaver gnaws at that pole. When Great White Grand Father Beaver is angry he chews faster and eventually will chew all the way through the pole. Once the pole is chewed through the world will topple over and end forever. Another Native American myth from the White River Sioux called The End of the World explains a different point of view on how the world will end. In it an old woman is in a cave no one can find and sits making a blanket strip for her buffalo robe out of porcupine quills. For thousands of years the old woman has been trying to make the blanket strip. Also in the cave sits a huge black dog called Shunka Sapa, who watches the old woman. The old woman also keeps a fire going in order to cook wojapi, berry soup. Every once in awhile the old woman gets up to stir the soup and while her back is turned Shunka Sapa undoes her work on the blanket strip because if it is ever finished the world will end. Native Americans look at the end of the world completely different then that of the Norse. Instead of it being an all out battle that destroys the world, they see the end of the world as inevitable. With the myth The Gnawing the Cheyenne can do little to prevent the end of the world, but try by appeasing the Great White Grandfather Beaver so that he chews slower. The End of the World myth, from the White River Sioux tribe has the same basic concept as the Cheyenne because it shows Shunka Sapa trying to delay the old woman from finishing the blanket strip which can also cause the end of the world. E â—„
Cave of the Winds | Chris Lott cc by-sa 2.0 By BermudaQuest
2012
Is This The End?
nasa/pd-art
38 | ORIGINS
The aztec sun stone The Aztec Sun Stone, or calendar stone (la Piedra del Sol), has been popularized as the Maya calendar. The Maya had no physical calendar. They did have a relationship with the Aztec Empire through trade and they shared similar beliefs. As you can see, the Maya calendar on the previous page and this one look nothing alike. This artifact, discovered in Mexico City’s main plaza (Zocalo) on December 17, 1740, is currently located at the National Museum of Anthropology (Museo Nacional de Antropologia) in Mexico City, Mexico. ◄ Aztec Sun Stone | Melanie E Magdalena
THE DRESDEN CODEX The Dresden Codex, or Codex Dresdensis, is a Maya book written before the conquest. It is one of the few books that survived the conquistadors purge of Maya beliefs. It was made on Amatl paper (or fig bark), and folded like an acordion. The codex is 74 pages long (front and back) and is just over eleven-and-a-half feet long. The pages to the right (of the Dresden Codex) depict eclipses, multiplication tables, and the Great Flood. The last page featured is not only the Great Flood, but is an image of the World Tree during the Earth’s destruction. The Maya kept very good records about the planet Venus and a lot of the information they gathered over the years is preserved in these ancient pages, plus their mathematical system based on an exponential system of 20 (unlike ours, since we use exponents of 10). Dresden Codex, pages 58-62 | PD-US ► www.origins-magazine.com
2012: IS THIS THE END? | 39
Monument 6 FROM TORTUGUERO Monument 6 from the archaeological site Tortuguero, Tabasco, caused quite a bit of commotion and became “supporting evidence” for believing 2012ers. Monument 6 only states that the 13th bak’tun will end – nothing more. No inscriptions say anything about a cataclysmic end for mankind. However, some scholars believe that it doesn’t even say that, but rather it speaks of a Maya deity coming to the physical realm. ◄ Monument 6 | Alfredo Sánchez CC BY-SA 3.0
CLICK HERE Read the Dresden Codex (or just admire the details)
By BermudaQuest
40 | ORIGINS
A system for recording time can be used for many things: to record historical events, plan agriculture and ceremonies, and even keep track of celestial motions.
Simple Numbers
Mesoamericans, including the Maya, had a 52-year Calendar Round that consisted of two overlapping calendars. The Maya had the Haab’ (a 365-day cycle) and the Tzol’kin of 260 days. This 260 day calendar intermeshed a sequence of 13 numbers with 20 days.
Cyclical creation and destruction is a typical feature of Mesoamerican religion. The Aztecs thought that the universe had passed through four such ages, and that we are now in the fifth, to be destroyed by earthquakes. The Tzolk’in (meaning “count of days” in Yucatec Maya) combines twenty day names with thirteen numbers of the trecena cycle to produce 260 unique days. Each successive day is numbered from 1 up to 13 and then starting again at 1. On the calendar to the right, the 20 glyphs around the center are combined with the number 1 through 13, dots represent 1 and lines represent 5. The Haab’ was the Maya solar calendar made up of eighteen months of twenty days each plus a period of five “nameless days” at the end of the year known as Wayeb’ (for a grand total of 365 days). The five days of Wayeb’, were thought to be a dangerous time in which www.origins-magazine.com
2012: IS THIS THE END? | 41
the portals between our world and the Underworld dissolved, allowing evil spirits to cause disasters. To ward off these evil spirits, the Maya practiced customs such as not leaving their homes or washing their hair plus rituals during these five nameless days. Each day in the Haab’ was identified by a day number in the month followed by the name of the month. The Haab’ was a bit inaccurate keeping track of the seasons, like the ancient Egyptians, they treated the year as having exactly 365 days and ignored the extra quarter day. Because of this, after a few centuries the seasons would have moved and the calendar months named after particular seasons no longer corresponded.
complex numbers
ten
A Calendar Round date is a date that gives both the Tzolk’in and Haab’. This date will repeat after 52 Haab’ years or 18,980 days, a Calendar Round.According to the Maya calendar we were created on 4 Ajaw 8 Kumk’u 13.0.0.0.0 (13 August 3114 BCE). When this date recurs it is known as a Calendar Round completion. For dates that go further than 52 years, the Maya used the long count. The Maya name for a day was k’in. Twenty of these k’ins are known as a winal or uinal. Eighteen winals make one tun. Twenty tuns are known as a k’atun. Twenty k’atuns make a b’ak’tun. The date “October 28, 2012” is written as (12.19.19.15.6). The Maya measured time in 13 bak’tuns (5,124 ¼ years) and thought that Armageddon would overtake the degenerated peoples of the world and all creation of the final day of the 13th bak’tun; then, the great cycle would then begin again. The “end of the world” marked at December 21, 2012, is the start of the 13th bak’tun (13.0.0.0.0); this day is the completion of the present Long Count cycle. Post-conquest Maya sources say the last 13 bak’tun cycle ended with a Great Flood. By BermudaQuest
42 | ORIGINS
Boom or bliss or just simply miss Out of the thousands of Maya monuments and three manuscripts, there is nothing that speaks of the overturn of the universe. Monuments speak of dynastic history; codices are documented rituals so people knew what to a deity and when.
Popular media can’t even publish the right calendar on their 2012 propaganda (see page 44 of this magazine).
Dr. Anthony Aveni visited University of Texas– Austin (2011) and Tulane University (2012) to present his views on the 2012 phenomenon. The Earth wobbles on its axis (precession) and a complete wobbling cycle takes 26,000 years. It takes about 1,000 of gradual change for the Earth’s pole to invert (meaning that magnetic north becomes the South Pole and vice versa). There are no unusual solar flares and earthquakes have not been more frequent. So why have people decided that all of these natural occurrences that govern our Solar System will wipe out humanity on December 21st? According to his presentation 62% of Americans believe in the end of the world. These radical views combined with pseudoscience interpretation of earth sciences and astronomy are fueling the believers of this year’s next “end of the world” prediciton.
Maya
How many “Ends of the World” have we survived so far? Humans survived the Little Ice Age, the Black Plague, Y2K, the calibrated date for the Rapture – what makes this year any different?
Dr. David Stuart, also present at both symposiums with Dr. Aveni, pointed out that time (in the Maya calendar) is conceived without having a beginning or an end. The Maya had a fused identity of the past and the present. Many inscriptions speak of times before the “beginnning” of their calendar cycle at 4 Ahaw 8 Kumk’u (13.0.0.0.0). Though the Spanish successfully conquered the Maya region, Maya traditions remain embedded in their adopted Catholic ways. A lot has happened to the Maya people since then: earthquakes of the 1770s, the Mexican Revolution, the rediscovery of Maya sites during the Stephens and Catherwood explorations (1830s), the list continues. Despite all their history, the Maya still live in their native region. Not even the Guatamala Genocidal Wars could make them disappear.
vs
Mayan
Maya is an adjective and a noun that can be singular and plural. Mayan, as a rule, should only be used when referring the language “Mayan phonetics”. ∆ Maya is used for everything like, “Maya architecture.” ∆ The word Maya is also used as an adjectival noun such as “the Maya” and can mean the same as saying “the French.”
So what’s the difference between “to study Maya” and “to study Mayan”? Using Maya refers to the culture and the people; Mayan refers to the language family. www.origins-magazine.com
2012: IS THIS THE END? | 43
Who Were The Maya
The Maya are indigenous Mesoamerican people that lived in a single unbroken area including all the Yucatan peninsula, Guatemala, Belize, parts of the Mexican states of Tabasco and Chiapas, and the western portion of Honduras and El Salvador. The Maya shares many features with other Mesoamerican civilizations such as the Aztecs and other sister civilizations. Advances such as writing, epigraphy, and the calendar did not originate with the Maya; however, their civilization fully developed them. Other than their fully developed written language, the Maya are famous for their art art, architecture, and mathematical and astronomical systems.
The Maya realm was a class society with strong political power in the hands of hereditary elite. Every adult Maya had two names, one from the mother that is only passed through the female line, and one from their father that is only passed through the male line, this means a matrilineage and a patrilineage descendent groups coexisted. Property was patrilineal and marriage regulation systems were matrilineal. Among the Mayans they were ranked, on the top were the nobles, the “almehen�, they held private lands and important political offices, as
well as filling roles of high-ranking warriors, wealthy farmers and, merchants, and clergy. The commoners were the free workers of the population in the milpas. Serfs worked in private lands of the nobles. On the bottom they were slaves who were mostly plebeians taken in war, prisoners of high rank being subject to the knife. The Mayans were obsessed with war, usually intertribal conflicts among the highlanders, while the 16 states of Yucatan were constantly battling with each other over boundaries and lineage honor. Maya notions conceive that the earth is flat and four-cornered, each angle at a cardinal point which had a color value; red for east, white for north, black for west, and yellow for south, and blue-green at the center. There are about 166 deities; some have an old and young counterpart, a male female counterpart, a counterpart for each direction, a underworld counterpart. The underworld was pictured in classic Maya ceramics, painted or carved, and were used funerary, a logical action given that their final destination was as containers for food and drink in the tombs and graves of the dead. The ceramics were equivalent to the Egyptian Book of the Dead.
Palenque, Mexico | Tato Grasso CC BY-SA 2.5 By BermudaQuest
44 | ORIGINS
Dr. Judith Maxwell lived hidden in Guatemala during the genocide wars and taught the Maya how to read and write in their language. After the Constitution revision of Guatemala (1985), Mayan was taught in schools, Maya religion came out of hiding, and some Maya even joined Congress. Not even their “calendar” can take them out. They will all “celebrate the beginning” of a new cycle. They’ve overcome collapse, repression, and assimilation. We should all be celebrating with them during the end of this 13th bak’tun. As Dr. Aveni said,
“The future depends on us, not the stars.” So will December 21, 2012, be a boom? pass us with bliss? or just simply miss?
El Castillo, Xunantunich, Belize | Occupied from the Pre-Classic up until the Post-Classic
A
Accor emerg to 250 of dev 900 C period
During velope their elabo inscrip
g these phases of history, the Maya deed traits that distinguished them from neighbors: vaulted stone architecture, their orate calendar, monumental architecture, and ptions on stone monuments.
Y2K Computer Bug
Nibiru Planet Collision of 2003 The Rapture (May 21, 2011) Maya “Apocalypse� Another Rapture (2022)
& nasablueshift
rding to Mesoamerican history, the Maya ged during the Pre-Classic period (c. 2,000 BCE 0 CE), and their cities reached their highest state velopment during the Classic period (c. 250 to CE), and continued throughout the Post-Classic d until the arrival of the Spanish.
casey reed/nasa
A Brief Maya History
Next Up on the Apocalypse Checklist
Technological Apocalypse (2040)
4,500,000,000 AD
Sun goes Red Giant Sucks up ALL terrestrial Planets
By BermudaQuest
MAYA GURUS _______________ 46 | ORIGINS
José Argüelles
Arguelles was not considered a scientist nor Mayanist scholar, but rather a supporter of the New Age belief system Mayanism. Arguelles ideas were set for preparing humanity for the “transformation” or “shift” into galactic consciousness by the end of 2012. Another one of his concerns was the way time is shifting from a natural awareness (such as the Maya perceived it to be) to a modern/industrial perception that is disrupting earth’s natural environment.
John Major Jenkins Jenkins independent researcher of Maya Studies. He is one of the principle people to promote the ending of the Maya calendar in December 21, 2012. He warns that major changes will occur on earth as we get closer to this date. Most of Jenkins’s arguments regarding the phenomena falls into classification as pseudoscience many people.
◀ Arguelles’ modification of the Hunab Ku symbol
Hunbatz Man
Hunbatz Man refres to himself as a “Mayan Elder”, and strongly believes that the Maya have known about a massive planet called Nibiru (Tzoltze ek’). He says, bear with us, that a moon of the planet will activate an energy that will activate our genetic memories, and all the pyramids for our use. The planet visits us 4 times every 26,000 year cycle,” which the next visit is 21st December 2012. He believes the planet is inhabited by beings that coperate on a higher “mental frequency” than us from earth. Ceremonies will be held at the Maya sites such as Uxmal and Chichen Itza. People that attend the initiation will be giving certification by the Hunbats Man as Mayan Initiates to teach the sacred Maya knowledge to others worldwide. www.origins-magazine.com
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MAYA SCHOLARS ________________ 2012: IS THIS THE END? | 47
Dr. Anthony Aveni, Dr. David Stuart, and Dr. Mark Van Stone are among the few that have pub;ished books about 2012 from a scholarly perspective. Each is an expert: Dr. Aveni in archaeoastronomy and Dr. Stuart and Dr. Van Stone in Maya archaeology. Dr. Van Stone’s recently published 2012 Science and Prophecy of the Ancient Maya as an interactive book for the iPad.
Whether you like physical paper books or ebooks, there is research about the 2012 meme that can give you more information about how this all began, what is going to happen, and what will not happen on December 21, 2012.
As we reach the December date we find more and more ideas and hypothesis regarding what will happen. Some can be as crazy as planet collisions or solar flares burning the earth to a crisp. Others believe it’s not a catastrophic event, but rather a destruction or reset of civilization as civilization, for example a new ideology or idea regarding society. These Maya gurus tend to use “cherry picked” information to support their own ideas and academic scholars look at their ideas and find them rather nutty. From what we can say from the academic point of view is that nothing is going to happen. The Maya calendar does not end, its just reaching a new cycle which we can relate to (exchanging old colanders to new ones every year) or (reaching one hundred thousand miles in a car meter when all the 9 turn into 0’s). Does time end at the end of the calendar? No. It’s like saying space ends at the end of a measuring stick. W By BermudaQuest
48 | ORIGINS
Cerros, Belize | Melanie E Magdalena
Uxmal, Mexico | Sybz www.origins-magazine.com
SITES TO SEE | 49
Chichen Itza, Mexico | Daniel Schwen
Tikal, Guatemala | Raymond Ostertag
Lamanai, Belize | Jose-Pierre Estrada all images cc by-sa 3.0
By BermudaQuest
50 | ORIGINS
From Self Defense to... Recreation?
Karen Meza Cherit
Weapons have been present alongside humans since the beginning of history. These objects of self defense were not as sophisticated as modern weapons nor were they used as they are today. In ancient time, weapons were solely a medium for self defense and survival. Humans in ancient times were armed with a sharp rock tied to a piece of wood. This was not only a means of protection forging but also one of survival. This was how men managed to bring food home to their families. We mustn’t forget that our ancestors would have been unable to accomplish all that they did without teamwork – several men hunted large animals to feed their families and the hides protected them from the harsh cold winters. Centuries later, people found new tools which fire could be added to and the rise of more effective and sophisticated weapons emerged as self defense weapons. From caves to small houses, people filled them with animal skins for clothing and blankets so they could be warm, stones and spears to keep them safe, and any other object that could be modified as much as their intelligence would permit. With all this, human beings from prehistoric times changed their lifestyles from nomadic to sedentary. As history continued and changed, so did technology and how mankind used it to their advantage. Technology, hand in hand with intelligence, enabled people to create things beyond weapons. Regardless – weapons continued to exist. www.origins-magazine.com
FROM SELF DEFENSE TO... RECREATION? | 51
By BermudaQuest
52 | ORIGINS
www.origins-magazine.com
FROM SELF DEFENSE TO... RECREATION? | 53
Guns had one original objective: protect people. They were not a threat to society, but a means of self-defense against harm much like bows and arrows in the past which were for hunting. Unfortunately, sedentary lives cause mayhem. Wars and disputes over territory began. These objects of self-defense and survival accounted for more than protection, it became fear. Currently, we are living in an age where anyone can carry a gun. All you need is a permit. These permits threaten the safety and security of others; those animals that were hunted down are now us. There are people who use guns for protection, others use them to achieve their ends at whatever price, and some just for fun. Fear and fun branch into a common trunk; though the owner of a gun may be having fun, the same cannot be said for the individual on the other side of the barrel. Will we ever know when this drastic moment occurred so that weapons could change from protecting to amusing people? The passage of time has been influencing not so good aspects in the development of human beings, however, are still those who can be trusted in a way since they use the weapons as means of protection: the judicial power of a State. But this is not enough, because there are those who do not trust the police in their own countries; this can only be a reflection of all the actions of people that cause dilemmas and conflicts. Present day is when you can see that any new method, new technology, new education has different meanings and aspects for each person, and different ways of influencing this only lies in the way in which people choose to take it, how people are educated, and how culture influences the members of society. H By BermudaQuest
REVIEW IT | 55
From the Shelf Books We Recommend & Reviews Ashes Ashes The Twins Fall Down Twin Towers, 9/11
By Pauline L Hawkins Pauline L Hawkins has done a wonderful job describing the historical moment of September 11, 2001, that spread across the nation beyond the World Trade Centers of New York City. Her research is informative about all aspects of the attack: The World Trade Centers, The Pentagon, Bin Laden, and the Patriot Act. Though she was not present in the city, she along with all other citizens of the United States experienced 9/11 eleven years ago. This personal memoir will bring tears to your eyes but will leave you wondering just what kind of a legislation your elected leaders run. I highly recommend this book to anyone who would like to read a historical memoir about the United States of America. – Melanie E Magdalena
By BermudaQuest