Bablake History Magazine 2020

Bablake History Magazine 2021

CONTENTS ARTICLES

4-5

Ancient women who changed the world

6-8

Ancient religions

9-10

Polynesian settlers and traditional navigation techniques

11-12

The Incan Empire

13-14

The Dylatov Pass Incident

29-30 31-32 33-34

Puzzle page Colouring page Aztec craft and activities

ACTIVITY SECTION

BABLAKE HISTORY MAGAZINE

Photographed by Felix Manzano

15-17 18-19 20-23 24-25 26-28 35-38

ARTICLES

Frida Kahlo The Yakuza The Samurai Hailee Selassie The Empire of Mali References

Photographed by

BABLAKE HISTORY MAGAZINE

Felix Manzano

BABLAKE HISTORY MAGAZINE | 2021

ANCIENT WOMEN WHO CHANGED THE WORLD Eleanor Paxton ELeanor of aquitaine

Eleanor was one of the wealthiest and most powerful women in western Europe during the high middle ages. As a patron of literature, she encouraged the work of literary figures. She led several armies in her life as well as being a leader of the second crusade. From 1168 to 1173, Eleanor established the Court of Love in her own lands in Poitiers. The court of love encouraged a culture of chivalry among her courtiers, as well as focusing on courtly love and symbolic ritual. Eleanor’s second husband Henry II imprisoned her for 16 years due to her rumoured involvement in her son “young” Henry’s plot against his father. When Richard acceded the throne, he released his mother and restored her to full freedom. Eleanor ruled England as regent during the third crusade. She lived to see her youngest son, John, be crowned king of England and eventually retired to live as nun in the abbey at Fontevraud, where she was buried upon her death in 1204. Eleanor was regarded by contemporary sources as perpulchra- more than beautiful. She was renowned as extroverted, lively and strong-willed; church elders described her conduct as “indecorous”.

Boudica

Boudica was a queen of the British Celtic Iceni tribe who led an uprising against the Roman Empire in AD 60 or 61. When her husband Prasutagus died, his will which had left his kingdom to his daughters and to the roman emperor was ignored. The kingdom was annexed and his property taken. In response, Boudica led the Iceni, the Renovates and others in a revolt against the roman forces in Britain. First, they destroyed Camulodunum, triggering Suetonius (Roman governor) to move his troops to Londinium. However, Boudica defeated them. She then burnt Londinium and Verulamium. Eventually Boudica was defeated by Suetonius. While legend states that she killed herself to avoid capture, Cassius Dio (a roman historian) states that she died of illness. Her rebellion caused Nero to consider withdrawing all Roman forces from Britain. Since the rebellion, Boudica has remained an important cultural symbol in the UK. During the Victorian era, she experienced the fame that would result in her infamous reputation. Her statue in London next to the houses of parliament stands guard over the city she raised to the grounds.

Cleopatra

Cleopatra, the infamous Egyptian queen, has for centuries been portrayed as a vapid, sex driven, beautiful woman. This reputation is the result of a propaganda war between Mark Antony and Octavian. Cleopatra spoke 9 languages, oversaw the construction of various temples, tackled crises such as famine and her policies helped turn Egypt and Alexandria into a force to be reckoned with. Roman contempories describe her as arrogant, whereas Arab contempories praise her intelligence. She was a diplomat, naval commander, linguist and medical author. She actively influence Roman politics during a crucial period and without her influence the fate of Rome would be entirely different.

Aisha

Aisha was the prophet Muhammed’s third wife and played a key role in early Islamic history.

She narrated 2,210 hadiths and was praised for her intellect. She was knowledgeable in various subjects such as medicine and poetry. Her father became the first caliph to succeed Muhammad. During the fourth caliphs (Ali) time, Aisha led troops against him to avenge the assassination of Uthman (the third caliph) in the Battle of the Camel. Because of this battle, Shia Muslims have a generally negative view of Aisha. Aisha is regarded as Muhammad’s favorite wife after the death of his first wife. Aisha was involved in politics in early Islam, a time where women were not expected to be involved in anything outside of the household.

She delivered public speeches and was directly involved in battles. She was known for advocating for the education of Islamic women and established the first madrasa for women in her home.

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Theodora

Theodora was an Eastern Roman empress by marriage to the emperor Justinian I. She hailed from humble origins as the daughter of a bear trainer and an actress/dancer. She worked in a Constantinople brothel and would later become the concubine of a Syrian official at the age of 16. Around 525 she married Justinian to whom she had previously been his mistress. Justinian I succeeded the throne 527, meaning Theodora became empress of the Eastern Roman Empire.

Justinian referred to her as his “partner in my deliberations”, due to the sizable political influence she held. She had almost equal power to her husband and was a champion of women’s rights.

She promoted religious and social policies important to her and helped save Justinian’s throne during the Nika riots. She closed brothels and made pimping a criminal offence. Theodora also set up a convent where ex-prostitutes could support themselves. Her legislation also expanded the rights of women in property ownership and divorce, forbade abandonment of unwanted infants, forbade the killing of a wife who committed adultery, gave mothers some guardianship rights over their children and instituted the death penalty for rape.

Murasaki shikibu

Murasaki Shikibu was a poet, novelist and lady in waiting at the Imperial court during the Heian period. She wrote the Tale of Genji, which is widely considered to be the one of the worlds first novels, written in Japanese between about 1000 and 1012. Her real name is actually unknown, but many scholars suspect it may have been Fujiwara no Kaoriko. During the Heian period women were traditionally excluded from learning Chinese. However, Murasaki showed an aptitude for learning languages; she used to listen to her brother being taught Chinese and was able to understand complex passages that her brother couldn’t. She was then taught Chinese as well as calligraphy and Japanese poetry. During the Heian period, women were seen as incapable of real intelligence, so Murasaki’s work is even more important especially considering her role in developing Japanese into a written language. Her work became required reading for court poets as early as the 12th century and she is highly regarded as a classical writer. Murasaki Shikibu defied traditional sexist roles and showed how women could be great writers and capable of intelligence.

Hatshepsut

Hatshepsut is often known as the ruler who portrayed herself as a man. She is regarded as one of the most successful pharaohs, with her reign focused on peace and expanding trade routes. Hatshepsut re-established trade routes that had been disrupted during the Hyksos occupation of Egypt. This included an expedition to the Land of Punt. She also commissioned hundreds of projects across Egypt, including a pair of obelisks. The one surviving obelisk is the second tallest ancient obelisk in Egypt. One of the most famous buildings is the Temple of Pakhet, an underground, cavernous shrine. Hatshepsut had long been portrayed as the scheming evil stepmother who usurped the throne from stepsonThutmose III. However, most historians agree that this interpretation has arisen due to the sexist nature of the archeologists who first wrote about her. They used the destruction of her legacy by her stepson as proof that he disliked her. However, some historians now believe that this destruction wasn’t a personal vendetta and was in fact to protect the future male pharaohs of Egypt. If a female ruler was allowed to be recognized as successful then that could encourage future female rule. By erasing evidence of successful female rule, this would allow the male pharaohs to continue the sexist belief that they were more fit to rule then their female counterparts. Hatshepsut not only defied sexist tradition by becoming pharaoh, she also became one of the most successful pharaohs that Egypt has ever seen.

Zenobia

Zenobia was a warrior queen whose military aptitude allowed her to conquer too large quantities of land, creating an empire that nearly rivalled that of Rome. The city of Palmyra was known as the ‘pearl of the desert’ and was famed for its wealth and beauty. During the third century, Palmyra was a city subordinate to the Rome and part of the province of Syria Phoenice. Zenobia sought to exploit the weakness of Rome and expand her territory. She did so by annexing different neighbouring states, including all of Syria and a large chunk of Anatolia (Turkey). By 270 AD she had control over all of Egypt. Zenobia looked to be rivaling the might of imperial Rome. She had distanced Palmyra from Roman control and a succession of weak emperors proved unable to challenge her. Eventually Roman emperor Aurelian defeated Zenobia at Antioch and chased her back to the city of Palmyra. She tried to flee the city but was captured. The events of her death are speculated but it was clear.she had been defeated. Her open defiance of Rome and her military success had made Zenobia infamous across the Middle East.

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BABLAKE HISTORY MAGAZINE | 2021

ANCIENT RELIGIONS

A factfile on three of the world’s ancient religions Toby Elkins

Zoroastrianism History and General Information

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It was the state religion of 3 Iranian empires between 600 BCE and 900 CE

(Achaemenid Empire, Parthian Empire and Sasanian Empire) -

It started around 1500 BCE with the prophet Zarathustra / Zoroaster

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It was one of the original monotheistic religions, with many other religions including Christianity, Islam and Judaism using

aspects of the religion in their own beliefs -

The Priests were known as Magi, and the Greeks of the time believed they had ‘magical knowledge’, due to their

understanding of complex astronomy.

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The ‘3 wise men’ from the Bible were Magi’s

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Around 650 CE the Zoroastrians began to be persecuted due to the Muslim Arab invasion of Iran which caused the downfall

of the Sasanian Empire -

In the 10th century some Iranian Zoroastrians fled to India forming the Parsis community, which was named after Persia -

the Indian name for where they came from. Although it was originally a refugee community it has now become the largest Zoroastrianism community in the modern world.

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It has two names, Zoroastrianism and Mazdayasna – Mazdayasna mainly used by those who follow the faith

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Main Beleifs

One true god - Name: Ahura Mazda – meaning ‘Wise Lord’ - believed he created all things good, including the earth and that he represents light A battle is occurring between good and evil - Ahura Mazda (Good) vs Angra Mainyu (Evil) There are angels and archangels There is a judgement system that places people in heaven and hell There is a final judgement that will purify the world and bring about the kingdom of god where all the good will live – creating ‘Paradise’.

Fire is a symbol of purity, and represents Ahura Mazda, with its warmth There are ‘archangel’ figures who support Ahura Mazda called ‘Amesha Spentas’ (there are overall 7.)

The Avesta is the holy book – and is written in Avestan, which was the language spoken by Zoroaster almost 3500 years ago.

Confucianism History and General Information

It is a development from the Hundred Schools of Thought, from the writings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius It has acted as the source of values, the substance of learning and the social code for the Chinese, and has even spread to surrounding Asian countries like Korea For 2,000 years Confucianism has influenced Chinese culture, politics and society through its ethical ideals Confucius felt the need to maintain cultural values and traditional social norms.

Confucius and his follows regarded themselves as part of what Chinese historians call ‘rujia’ which is a scholarly tradition, originating around two millennia previous to Confucius’ presence

Main Beleifs

Striving to be Chun Tzu o A superior person / ideal person Some key Confucianism virtues: Loyalty – ‘zhong’ . Filial piety - ‘xiao’ . Benevolence – ‘ren’ . Affection – ‘ai’ . Trustworthiness – ‘xin’ .

Righteousness – ‘yi’ . Harmony – ‘he’ . Peace – ‘ping’ . Propriety – ‘li’ . Wisdom – ‘zhi’ . Integrity – ‘lian’ . Shame – ‘chi’ These virtues act almost as the rules for a Confucianist lifestyle.

Overall, much like in many other religions, Confucianism acts as a lifestyle for many, with the ideal values of society and culture being spread within the message of Confucianism

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jainism History and General Information

Originated around 7th century – 5th century BCE in the Ganges basin of eastern India Same area as Buddhism First Jain figure – renunciation teacher named Parshvanatha (Parshva) o Founded a community based upon the abandonment of worldly concerns o Regarded by Jains as 23rd Tirthankara (one who leads the way across the stream of rebirths to salvation Mahavira – traditionally known to have lived between 599 BCE – 527 BCE – last teacher of ‘right’ knowledge, faith and practice o Close contemporary of the Buddha o Followed a path of solitary and intense asceticism for 12 & ½ years o Converted 11 disciples from Brahmans o 2 of which outlived him and are believed to have founded the Jain monastic community (named – Indravhuti Gautama & Sudharman) o Jambu (another disciple) believed to be the last person to gain enlightenment (of the current age)

Main Beleifs

There is a concern for the welfare of the universe and all its beings Everything has a living soul, including plants and animals.

Strict vegetarianism and a lack of use of the world’s resources Believe in reincarnation Aim to achieve full liberation – and escape from the constant cycle of death and rebirth, and a state of eternal bliss for the soul Liberation achieved by eliminating all karma from the soul No gods / spirits ‘Three jewels’ (principles) – right belief, right knowledge, right conduct 5 Mahavratas (5 great vows) – ahimsa = Non violence . Satya = Truthfulness . Asteya = Non stealing . Aparigraha = Non – acquisition .

Brahmacarya = chaste living Creator of Jainism in modern day form – Mahavira Texts of teaching = Agamas No priests – only monks and nuns There are 2 sects of Jainism: the Digambara (meaning sky clad) sect and the Svetambara (meaning white clad) sect. They share common beliefs on the basics of Jainism, but disagree on some things: details of the life of Mahavira the spiritual status of women whether monks should wear clothes rituals which texts should be accepted as scriptures The main aims of a Jain is to reach liberation and have eternal bliss for the soul

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BABLAKE HISTORY MAGAZINE | 2021

POLYNESIAN SETTLERS AND TRADITIONAL NAVIGATION TECHNIQUES A summary of the movement of a seafaring people Madeleine Gallon The Pacific Ocean, a vast body of water of over 60 million square miles, is home to the continent of Oceania. This continent can be subdivided into Australia, Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia.

Polynesia is the largest of the four, covering approximately 10 million square miles, with the Polynesian Triangle connecting New Zealand, Hawaii, and Rapa Nui (Easter Island). The images of Polynesia that spring to mind are those of clear, turquoise waters and white sandy beaches with the odd palm tree or group of overwater huts. However, for humans to first discover these tranquil islands, they needed to sail considerable distances across the Pacific without knowing what they may come across. People were driven to continue exploring for several reasons: fleeing war, overpopulation, or a founder-focused ideology where those who discovered new lands were highly respected. For the early settlers of these islands, complex and reliable navigation techniques were key to enabling voyages across the Pacific to reach new land.

Polynesian Triangle Source: Wikimedia Commons

where were the first Polynesian settlers from?

Proposed migratory paths of Austronesian-speaking populations with estimated dates.

Showing Micronesia, Island South-East Asia, Melanesia and Polynesia.

Source: World History

Polynesian settlers were from Southeast Asia, most likely sailing from Taiwan around 1500 BC. There are three main theories on how people reached Polynesia from here. The ‘Express Train Model’ suggests movement from Taiwan, through the Philippines and eastern Indonesia, via Bird’s Head Peninsula (New Guinea) and Melanesia, before the western Polynesian islands were first reached around 900 BC. A 1000 year ‘pause’ then occurred before the continued settlement throughout the Triangle. The ‘Entangled Bank Model’ accentuates the thousands of years of interaction between Melanesians (also of Southeast Asian origin) on route to the Polynesian islands. The third theory, the ‘Slow Boat Model,’ proposes a longer ‘pause’ and greater cultural mixing in Melanesia but follows the same movement as the ‘Express Train Model.’

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It has also been proposed that the people who first settled on Polynesian islands came from South America.

Although most genetic, cultural, and linguistic indicators suggest the three theories already mentioned, the adventurer and ethnographer Thor Heyerdahl promoted his theory of accidental drift voyaging from South America, largely because he could not conceive that the early settlers could have the skills or equipment needed to travel so far. His 1947 Kon-Tiki Expedition was designed to prove this theory of accidental discovery, and he drifted in his balsawood raft from Peru to Polynesia in 101 days. However, even though he proved it was possible to drift from South America to Polynesia, this does not mean it actually happened. In 1973, a group of computer modelers determined that settlement by drift voyaging was 'extremely unlikely.' Then the voyage of the traditional Polynesian canoe, the Hōkūleʻa, from Hawaii to Tahiti using early Polynesian navigation techniques demonstrated that navigation methods were advanced enough for intentional exploration, disproving Heyerdahl’s theory.

There is evidence of travel to/from South America, although exactly when and to what extent is not known. A study looking at the genomes of over 800 individuals from 17 different Polynesian islands established that contact between Polynesians and Native Americans may have occurred as early as 1150 AD in the South Marquesas. The discovery of chicken bones in Chile that predate the arrival of the Spaniards, and the introduction of sweet potatoes in Polynesia from South America both indicate such travel. Different conclusions have been drawn from this research; some claim this proves that Thor Heyerdahl was right, whilst others cite the Polynesians’ advanced navigation skills and archaeological discoveries as evidence suggesting further Polynesian travel to South America and back, introducing South American genetic material into the Polynesian population in the process. The overriding view is that purposeful trips and island hopping by people of Austronesian descent were the first to settle the Polynesian islands, and that it is more likely that early Polynesians travelled to South America and back rather than the other way around.

Navigation techniques

The Hōkūleʻa Source: Polynesian Voyaging Society

Trade wind-generated ocean swells (flowing northeast or southeast) were used to identify direction from the rocking motion caused by the swells on the canoes. To navigate using stars, Polynesians would memorise entire sky charts and the rising and setting points of stars at different times, often weaving the navigation instructions into stories that were orally passed down the generations. Clouds could be used to detect landmasses; the lagoons of atolls or dark colours of vegetation can be seen reflected in the underside of clouds, and high masses of clouds indicated mountainous islands. Floating vegetation, types of fish, changing marine bioluminescence and the flight patterns of birds with known flight ranges could also indicate the proximity to land. The 1976 Hōkūle‘a voyage tested these navigation techniques and demonstrated their reliability.

The Hōkūle‘a is still sailing today, most recently completing its Mālama Honua Worldwide Voyage of 2013-2019, and has amassed a total of 150,000 nautical miles.

Although there are conflicting theories on exactly who first settled Polynesia, what route was taken, and the extent of any contact with South America, the one certainty is that the early Polynesians were champions of the ocean. The methods of navigation were so fine-tuned that Heyerdahl’s incredulity is almost understandable.

Since the interference of Westerners, traditional Polynesian navigation has seen a decline, however the voyages of the Hōkūle‘a have provided an insight into the travel of the past and helped to revive traditional cultural practices in the present.

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BABLAKE HISTORY MAGAZINE | 2021

THE INCAN EMPIRE

An empire once considered the largest in the world Edward Broome

Before naming their empire ‘Tawantinsuyu’ (meaning four parts together), the Incas were a tribe of humble farmers in the highlands of the Andes mountain range. It was not until the early 15th Century that the Incan Empire truly started to sprout. At this time, the current leader of the small kingdom of Cusco, Viracocha, began playing around with the idea of a new religion revolving around a sun god, named Inti. He claimed he was the embodiment of this god, and that he and his people had the divine right rule over whoever they may conquer. This kickstarted their conquests across South America that would last for 100 years, but how were they so successful?

Rise of the empire

In about 1438, a warrior who named himself arrogantly Pachakuti (meaning “he who remakes the world”) came to the throne of Cusco and officially morphed it into what we call the Inca Empire. He began conquests in western South America and was hugely successful since Cusco was the only comparatively large and civilized society in the area. This is because Cusco had already been developing for 200 years before the kingdom became greedy for more. The Incas also used gift exchanges, marriages, and alliances with their neighbours to gain huge masses of territory without using warfare. However, if people refused the Incans’ bargaining, they went back to military force, which they knew could not be competed with. This allowed for the empire at its peak to cover around 300,000 square miles, from the south of Chile to the North of Ecuador.

However not only were the Incas great warriors, but they were also very skilled at imposing innovative technologies and ideas onto their huge empire, to ensure its survival. They gave the people advantages to being ruled over such as free food and hospitality. This was made efficient by the thousands of storage buildings around the empire that provided everything from clothes to building materials to food to the local people. The Incans also moved around three million people from highlands to areas that were much better agriculturally. This backfired though as a large majority of the locals controlled by the Incans rejected their rule even with all this aid, and they were quick to turn sides when it benefited them.

In addition, the Incans were very talented masons, famous for their tightly fitted walls. Boulders were cut and trimmed so that they would perfectly fit each other, which created indestructible and earthquake-proof walls. Some of the most amazing architecture in the world, such as the temple of the sun Coricancha, can be credited to the genius of the Incans. To allow for effective transport across their massive empire, the Incans additionally created around 40,000 kilometres of roads, meaning everything could be managed with ease and efficiency from the central government in Cusco.

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Even with the advanced infrastructure, there were still many serious problems within the Incan empire that would create the perfect conditions for an invasion. First being than the Incans themselves were only a population of 40,000 and yet controlled around 10 million people who spoke over 30 different languages. This created a huge divide between the rulers and ruled, and while the Incans tried to integrate their culture by imposing religion and art, the populations of South America had an attitude of resentment rather than gratitude towards the residents of Cusco. Furthermore, when the Incan leader Wayna Qhapaq died in 1528 two of his sons fought in a four year long civil war for power, and even though Atahualpa eventually came out on top the Cusco government was still very unstable and was full of rival factions. To add further insult to injury, European diseases, such as smallpox, spread from Central America and reached the Incan territories. In some places a shocking 65-90% of people were killed. All these detrimental problems gave way for Francisco Pizzaro and his group of Spanish adventurers to completely wipe out the empire within 5 years.

fall of the empire

Francisco Pizzaro and his partner Diego de Almagro were Spanish explorers both in their mid-fifties who were desperate to gain prestige in their home country. Inspired by the Aztec discoveries of the 1510s, Pizzaro and his men set sail to South America in 1527 with a force of 168 men, hoping to find great treasures worthy of glory back in Spain. Pizzaro sailed down the South American coast and finally reached the Peruvian city of Tumbes in 1532, savagely pillaging villages and towns on the way. He pushed on deeper into the Andes, discovering the signs of a rich civilization in the form of storehouses and impressively built roads. In November, the Spaniards entered the town of Cajamarca where they formally met the king Atahualpa. The two forces shared drinks and speeches, but both leaders left the party planning to kill the other. Pizzaro executed his plan the very next day by ambushing the Incan forces, taking advantage of the labyrinth-like build of the town. The Spanish also had a huge advantage as they used cannons and guns to fight against spears and bows. The battle was a landslide victory for the Spanish, with 7,000 Incan deaths against 0 Spanish losses, and Atahualpa was captured alive.

The Incan king was then held for ransom while ruling his people in captivity. Over $50 million was raised by the Incans over 8 months to set him free. Pizarro accepted the ransom but then broke his promise and mercilessly killed Atahualpa in July 1533. This action received heavy criticism from his men and even the Spanish king, but Pizzaro argued that the Incan king was treated as a living god by his people, and only by his death would the Incans submit to the Spanish. Pizzaro next aimed to conquer Cusco. He was helped by the local populations who fought alongside the Spaniards and gave them supplies from the Incan storerooms. This allowed Pizzaro to gain control of Cusco in November 1533 after several harmless resistances from the Incans. The Spanish rewarded themselves by ruthlessly ransacking the city of its treasures and melting them down into gold and silver that could be taken back to Spain. Luckily, some treasure remained and can now be found in museums all over the world. A great example of this being the Incan gold sun mask which can found in the Ecuador’s national museum.

With the capital under Pizzaro’s control, the rest of the empire fell easily. There was still plenty of internal conflict and the Incan method of warfare was far too outdated. The Spanish used ambushes and deceit to outsmart their enemies, while also having much stronger weaponry. This allowed a stable colonial government to be set up in the Incan territories thanks to the cruel Spanish invaders and their extermination of the Incans and their amazing culture. However, while the Incans lost an empire, the common people of west South America (the Andeans) went from one oppressive group of uninvited rulers straight to another, and their cultures and languages were diluted until extinction over the next 500 years. Therefore the Andeans are the true losers of this saga, and the effects can still be seen today.

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BABLAKE HISTORY MAGAZINE | 2021

THE DYLATOV PASS INCIDENT

Russia's Greatest Mystery Hiren Venn

(Fig.1) The Ural Mountains, Russia

(Fig.2) The rescuers discovering the remains of the campsite

The Story In January 1959, 10 hikers began their expedition into the northern Ural Mountains (Fig.1). The group were all experienced hikers, and were led by the Ural Polytechnical Institute by Igor Dylatov. The group had successfully reached their checkpoint in their three week journey on the 26th of January, as they arrived in Vizhay. The group then proceeded to send their last post card about their arrival from Dylatov to his father, after having checked in with the Sverdlovsk Political bureau for extreme sports. One of the hikers, Yuri Yudin, at this point had to then leave the trek early on the 28th January, as a result of lower back and spine pain known as sciatica. He was very disappointed to have had to leave early, however it was a choice that would save his life. They set up camp on the eastern slopes of Kholat Syakhl or literally “Dead Mountain” in the thick snow by cutting into the snow, in order to provide a flat ground upon which to sleep on and set up camp. However, during the night, something caused the skiers to slash open their tents from the inside (Fig.2) and leave the campsite inadequately dressed for sub-zero temperatures and snowfall. Their bodies were discovered and the resulting soviet investigation declared that a “compelling natural force” was the cause of their deaths. Six of the group had died of hypothermia, and the rest of physical trauma. The victims under autopsy were found to have had ranging physical damage, from one with major skull damage, two with severe chest trauma and another with a small crack in their skull.

Four bodies were found resting in a creek, two of which were missing eyes and one was missing a tongue.

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(Fig.3) How an avalanche may have occurred as a result of katabatic winds

Recent Developments There have been numerous theories as to what the “compelling natural force” was; from animal attacks, avalanche, katabatic winds, the soviet military, infrasound-induced panic or some combination of these. However, all of the theories have irregularities to the evidence provided, which is why there has never been a strongly compelling conclusion. As a result of this, Russia recently reopened the case in February 2019. However, they have been unable to find much more about the case 60 years on, despite the advancements in technology since. One revelation however could be quite substantial to uncovering the mystery behind the Dylatov pass. Aleksander Alekseenkov, a researcher from Moscow speaking at the annual Dylatov group conference on February 2nd 2021, revealed that “My expectations were justified; a magnetic anomaly was discovered a few hundred meters from the tent site. The gradient (spread) of the measurement was from several units to several tens of units, and in that place - right up to 1700 units, that is, the difference is several orders of magnitude.” This new evidence strongly suggests that an avalanche was most likely the cause, however, there are a few points in the avalanche theory which doesn’t align with the evidence from 1959. The injuries to the skiers were not those of a typical avalanche injury, and the dispatched rescue team did not report any sign of avalanche. Furthermore, there was no snowfall on the night of the incident, which suggests that it couldn’t have been natural, and that the campers couldn’t have caused it by digging into the snow to set up camp. As well as that, the average angle of the slope above the tent was not steep enough for an avalanche (>30°). However, Gaume and Puzrin believe they can bridge the gaps. In the journal by nature research “Communications Earth & Environment” they said; “We use data on snow friction and local topography to prove that a small slab avalanche could occur on a gentle slope, leaving few traces behind. With the help of computer simulations, we show that the impact of a snow slab can lead to injuries similar to those observed.”

Most of their investigation has been spent explaining the time lag between the cutting into the slope and the triggering of the event, due to the absence of snowfall in the evening of the incident. To explain this, they believe that katabatic winds were able to transport enough snow down the mountain to create the avalanche, which caused the injuries (Fig.3). Puzrin explains that “If they hadn't made a cut in the slope, nothing would have happened. That was the initial trigger, but that alone wouldn't have been enough. The katabatic wind probably drifted the snow and allowed an extra load to build up slowly. At a certain point, a crack could have formed and propagated, causing the snow slab to release.”

However, the researchers remain adamant that this is only a theory as to the mystery, as;

“The truth, of course, is that no one really knows what happened that night.”

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FRIDA KAHLO 'During Kahlo’s lifetime she was sometimes viewed as ‘exotic' or patronised, ‘othered’ but today – her intersectional, and complex, self-constructed identity is better understood and is inspiring' Circe Henestrosa Bella Handy

Disability advocate

“My painting carries with it the message of pain.”

At the age of 18, Kahlo suffered a nearly fatal accident, within which, an electric streetcar crashed into the bus Kahlo was riding home from school. As a result, Kahlo was gravely injured, with a steel handrail being impaled through her pelvis. Due to the multitude of her extensive injuries, Kahlo was left bedridden in hospital, suffering immense pain and loneliness as her family refused to visit her. Consequently, Kahlo’s life was absorbed within a constant battle against ill-health, leading to extensive surgeries and chronic pain which subsequently fuelled her desire to paint. Kahlo used self-portraits as a method of expressing her immense physical suffering and loneliness whilst reflecting a defiant, stoic manner.

Tree of Hope, Remain Strong

FridaKahlo.org

This painting dramatically juxtaposes Kahlo’s pain and suffering with her stoicism and determination. The left side bears an image of Kahlo lying on a hospital gurney under the sun, scarred and bleeding. The combination of these two elements emphasises Kahlo’s helplessness as the sun, known to be fed by sacrificial human blood in Aztec mythology, symbolises her willingness to sacrifice her scarred, bleeding body as it lays on the gurney.

However, the right side of the painting depicts a powerful, optimistic version of Kahlo wearing a red Tehuna (a traditional Mexican dress) under a glimmering moon. In one hand, Kahlo holds a back brace, similar to the ones she wore following her numerous surgeries, and in the other hand, a small flag with the Spanish inscription ‘Arbol de la esperanza mantente firme.’ (Tree of hope, remain strong.) This depiction of Kahlo is defiant and optimistic, conveying her determination to become a heroic survivor and overcome the consequences of her accident.

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THE BROKEN COLUMN

This self-portrait was painted soon after Kahlo had spinal surgery to correct ongoing problems following her serious traffic accident.

Within this painting, Kahlo expresses her psychological and physical suffering following her surgery, evident from the distortion of her body and its mutilation by non-human elements.

Kahlo also emphasises her chronic pain following her accident as nails pierce through her skin whilst her body is constrained by a body brace. Despite being presented as visually upset and alone amongst a barren, isolated terrain, Kahlo’s face does not convey any pain. Instead, Kahlo looks straight ahead in a defiant manner which emanates a message of spiritual triumph.

Pintrest.com

An unconventional woman

“This is how it feels to be in this broken female body.'

Commonly recognised as a feminist icon, Kahlo often defied gender expectations assigned to women during the 1900s.

Kahlo refused to alter or change any of her ‘masculine' features which she exaggerated within her portraits whilst she was openly bisexual, making no apologies or excuses for her sexual choices or affairs with other women as she boldly challenged feminine expectations.

Additionally, Frida often refused to paint the traditional depiction of female beauty, instead, choosing to depict honest experiences and challenges that women faced, including abortion, miscarriage and birth as she challenged society’s expectations of women.

Self-portrait With Cropped Hair

FridaKahlo.org

Within this self-portrait, Kahlo is wearing a loose-fitting man’s suit whilst her long, braided hair is strewn across the floor, having been cut off by Kahlo who now adopts a short-clipped haircut.

The paintings also bears the lyrics of a popular Mexican song: ‘Mira que si te quise fue por el pelo, ahora que estás pelona, ya no te quiero.’ (‘See, if I loved you, it was for your hair, now you’re bald, I don’t love you anymore.) This painting, therefore, indicates Kahlo’s violent separation from her husband Rivera, resulting in Kahlo abandoning her feminine appearance that her husband once adored as she changes her image to assume a more masculine demeanour. Furthermore, this portrait conveys the newfound autonomy that Kahlo assumed following her divorce, expressing her desire to gain freedom and independence as Kahlo drastically changed her image and vowed to support herself financially by selling her work

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Henry Ford Hospital

Lescultivores.com

This painting portrays Kahlo lying on a bed, bleeding after a miscarriage, with six red cords, emanating from her open hand which rests on her stomach, each tied to a different object. The snail alludes to the time it took for Kahlo to miscarry, the male foetus expressing her desire to conceive a boy alongside models of the female reproductive systems and pelvis which potentially reflects her inability to have children following her accident.

Alongside these objects is a purple orchid that expresses Kahlo’s acknowledgement of Rivera’s support, having slipped into a state of deep depression, emphasised by the tears streaming down Kahlo’s face. Following this miscarriage, Kahlo realised that she could never carry a pregnancy term, with this painting conveying a sense of helplessness. By openly depicting her anguish and suffering, Kahlo shines a light on the suffering and challenges women faced, provoking awareness into the subject of miscarriage which no one had dared to discuss at the time.

MEXICAN PRIDE

“The industrial part of Detroit is really the most interesting side, otherwise it’s like the rest of the United States, ugly and stupid.”

Commonly regarded as a Mexican icon, Kahlo was deeply patriotic. Kahlo was greatly influenced by her national pride, having been a child of the Mexican Revolution. Kahlo identified with the revolutionary cause so strongly, she changed her birth year from 1907 to 1910 in order to align her genesis with that of her newly reformed country. Subsequently, Kahlo’s art vividly reflects an expression of Mexican pride whilst her work is considered part of the ‘mexicanidad movement,’ described as ‘a movement reviving the indigenous religion, philosophy and traditions of ancient Mexico among the Mexican people.’

Self Portrait Along the Border Line Between Mexico and the United States

Openuniversity.com

This self-portrait vividly demonstrates Kahlo’s desire to return to Mexico. On the left, ancient Mexico is represented with blooming plant life, emphasising a sense of natural harmony as the soil yields an abundance of vegetation. Additionally, Kahlo features other elements of indigenous objects that symbolise Mexican culture, including a pre-Columbian temple alongside Aztec iconography. Whereas, the depiction of America on the right juxtaposes the natural, traditional representation of Mexico.

America is presented as an inorganic place of industrialisation, with factory vents resembling faceless figures, skyscrapers towering over the city, electric cables rooting themselves within American soil, whilst pollution streams out of chimneys. Standing between these two antithetical terrains, Kahlo bears a Mexican flag as she champion’s her country’s culture and history.

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THE YAKUZA

A summary of the effects the yakuza has on Japanese culture and society Alex Giles From amputating little fingers and sex trafficking to charity work and waste disposal the Yakuza, a powerful criminal organisation, has had a massive effect on Japanese society and culture. The enormous gang has roughly 28,200 members and every single member is not to be trifled with due to their ruthless nature and willingness to kill you with a simple nod from their boss. They are each professional criminals that collectively run Japan and ever since the formation of the gang in 1603 they have altered Japanese society for better or worse.

It is estimated that there are 2000-3000 Yakuza gangs in Japan and that overall, there are 80,000 different Yakuza members. There are contrasting stories about the origins of the Yakuza which vary from the Yakuza starting as ancient samurais to the Yakuza starting by defending villages from marauders. However, the most commonly believed story is that most of these gangsters originally were just men that trafficked goods and ran gambling businesses.

Depending on which origin story you believe the yakuza are honourable people that protect the people, or they are dangerous criminals that commit dangerous acts.

The Yakuza is a generic, umbrella term that refers to various gangs in Japan. The most frequent name given to the people that take the path of the Yakuza is ‘Goduku’ which translates to a wicked or extreme path. On the other hand, the Yakuza members refer to themselves as ‘Ninkyo dantai’ which translates to a chivalrous organisation. The media and police however disagree and refer to them as ‘Boryokudan’ which roughly translates to a violent group. Already we can see that there is a wide range of contrasting views on the Yakuza and the gangs' morality.

CODES OF CONDUCT

The Yakuza have a large number of rules, and if you break them there are two punishments you can receive. The first is death and the second is expulsion with no way back into the world of the Yakuza. For the luckiest rule-breakers, they receive a practice called Yubitsume, which is where they cut off a finger just above the joint. The offender cuts the finger themselves, wraps it up, and hands it to their boss.

This was originally done to weaken the sword grip of the offender but now it is more symbolic, and it comes into use often which can be seen by the demand for prosthetic fingers skyrocketing.

The Yakuza so far into my research come under two categories: angels who save lives, and devils who commit crimes.

However, in recent years the Yakuza are trying to become a more law-abiding enterprise for example the Yamaguchigummi made the usage and sale of drugs against the rules in 2011. They have also created an official website and are trying hard not to kill anyone according to many retired members, and although killings do happen, the victim has to do something to seriously upset a member for it to be justified by the Yakuza. For example, in 2007 the mayor was killed for not cooperating with a Yakuza boss which clearly contradicts the image of the Yakuza being moral and law-abiding, however for the gang to countlessly get away with illegal acts shows their power and the acceptance from the general public of these illegal acts.

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Although many people think the Yakuza are honourless criminals, it is a known fact that they have codes of conduct.

Rituals associated with the past are important to the Yakuza and some scholars claim that the Yakuza have an unwavering moral code and that they are driven by money but also the will to do good. Therefore, we could refer to them as moral gangsters which is how the yakuza members would like to be viewed. Many stories that have emerged about the yakuza tend to have a Robin Hood-esque style of taking money from the rich and giving it to the poor and that they were fighting oppression. The narrative that the yakuza tell is now that they are neo samurai that have put down the sword and have picked up a gun, but their principles are the same. However, many members of Japanese society do not view them in the same manner as many Japanese people do not believe drug trafficking, gambling, blackmailing, and prostitution as honourable deeds. This is an understandable viewpoint and I sure that the majority of people around the world would thoroughly agree, and this is where the negative image of the gangs comes from.

However, they do also do honourable deeds which could counteract this belief that the Yakuza have a negative effect on society.

The largest gang in the Yakuza called the Yamaguchi-Gumi traffics drugs, traffics weapons, has a huge impact on and invests in the stock market, has a large hand in Japan's huge pornography industry, builds buildings, and run gambling operations. The group started as a labour organisation in the 1900s and is now run by a man called Kenichi Shinoda who has been jailed for murder and is also seen as a fantastic businessman who has helped the Yamaguchi-Gumi grow significantly under his reign. He still believes, despite his murder charges, that the yakuza is an honourable organisation, and states that the yakuza have helped the public countless times specifically after natural disasters and the second world war. This proclamation is factual which is one of the main factors in why the Japanese society put up with the Yakuza. After the Kobe earthquake in 1995 around 1 million Japanese people were left without a home, until first the Yamaguchi-Gumi and then all 4 other Yakuza syndicates stepped up. After the Tsunami in 2011, the Yakuza again stepped up and saved many people by offering housing and tons of food. The yakuza helped the Japanese population so many times that one reporter wrote: “I will be endlessly fascinated by the charity of Yakuza when natural disasters strike. It’s such an idiosyncratic, paradoxical thing for a criminal group.” This essentially means that for such a deadly crime organisation, the Yakuza can be extremely helpful and lifesaving

We can say that although the Yakuza may be dangerous, they are the most ethical and upstanding group of gangsters on the planet. The clear split in views on the Yakuza represents a form of class division in which the different classes have different opinions on the Yakuza. We can view the divisions in opinions as coming from the general public for example the working class, middle class, and lower class, and the wealthier upper class for example the Yakuza themselves and businessmen. The general public argues that the Yakuza are criminals whereas the upper class argues that the Yakuza are honourable people. Despite the clear divisions in opinion, we should all agree that in times of need people should stick together and help each other, just as the Yakuza have done in past times of need. This does not excuse the horrendous acts that have been done by the group, but it does show the attempt at restoration of legality in the Yakuza. Overall, the Yakuza has a huge effect on Japanese society, from murders to charity work, but they are clearly not moral despite their claims. However, being immoral is sometimes a necessity of society and as Japan is one of the safest and cleanest countries in the world, the Yakuza’s methods are working. This proves that the Yakuza has a positive effect on Japanese society.

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BABLAKE HISTORY MAGAZINE | 2021

THE SAMURAI: HONOURABLE FIGHTERS OR PAID MERCENARIES? James Fraser

Madeleine Gallon In modern Western culture, there is no denying that samurai culture has been glamorised, especially in cinema, portraying an idealistic version of who the samurai were and more importantly what they stood for. While the interest in Japanese culture is no doubt a positive development for diversity and acceptance, it is also important to look at this narrative through a critical lens, and ask ourselves – were the Samurai really the honourable soldiers we view them as today?

In considering this question, one must first question what honour truly is. In feudal Japan, honour was the defining quality of any high-ranking member of society. To have honour was to garner respect and be of great esteem. To have people serve you willingly, and in turn, be willing to sacrifice your life for your ideals. In a more literal and modern sense, honour is knowing and doing what is morally right, not what is best for you. In that sense, having honour is no different than being a good role model; someone to look up to and respect like a Head-boy or girl. Handily, the Samurai lived their lives by an unwritten code of honour known as the Bushido, split into seven key virtue, so it is through this which we can begin to explore the morality of Japan’s greatest warriors

bushido - the way of the warrior

The first virtue of Bushido is rectitude, which is to act morally without hesitation, but also to act rationally and be prepared to both kill and die when necessary. One interpretation of the code defines it as “to die when to die is right, to strike when to strike is right”. The samurai were not expected to resort to violence but understood that at times, the blade that deals with death save lives.

The literal translation of this point is “courage of the mind/spirit”. A key distinction is made here from bravery. A foolish act that risks your life was not considered brave and dying from doing so went directly against their beliefs. Instead, courage was seen as protecting those you are loyal to at all costs and doing good in your life despite fears.

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The Samurai understood that the extensive training they went through from a young age put them at a level above most men. With this power, they also understood the importance of respecting those weaker than them. In winning a fair duel, Samurai would often spare their opponents if they thought they were worthy of mercy. With that being said, Samurai did not respect the concept of surrender as they saw it as dishonourable so would often not spare a surrendering foe.

Perhaps better translated as respect, a Samurai was expected to be a role model for others and follow conventions. Rudeness and ignorance were seen as weakness.

Tradition was a very important aspect of Japanese life, and the Samurai were just as much bureaucrats as they were warriors. To break tradition or show a lack of manners was considered just as offensive as breaking any other element of the code.

Seemingly the most relevant to our question, in this case, honour is meant as staying true to one’s principles. Samurai were meant to dedicate their life to serving and protecting and breaking any of these points was seen as worse than death. In the case of losing one’s honour, a samurai would have to commit a ritual suicide known as “seppuku” which was said to restore honour in death.

All Samurai swear themselves to a master, lest they become ronin, a masterless Samurai.

This oath is not just about servitude, but also fidelity coming from the heart. For many, this was the most important of the virtues, as to swear yourself to a master with not only your body but your mind was to bring great honour to them, not just you. Above all else, the Samurai were dedicated to their clan.

Now that we know the virtues by which the Samurai define themselves, at first glance, it is clear to see where they garnered their reputation of honour. Above all else the Samurai were loyal and stuck to their beliefs, which made up a key factor of how we defined honour. However upon further inspection, while the ideals are certainly respectable, there seems to be a perversion in their execution. Seppuku immediately stands out as questionable, as it relies on the idea of there being any benefit to a meaningless sacrifice of one’s own life. There are also more subtle discrepancies such as the strange concept of mercy, as well as raising the children of their clan to be warriors from before they hit puberty. To explore these ideals further it is essential to see them in execution, for which there is no better story than “The tale of the 47 Ronin”. While the story told by A. B. Mitford has no doubt been romanticised, there is no doubt the story is largely historically accurate.

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The revenge of the 47 Rōnin

In 1701, the young Samurai Asano and Kamei were assigned the task of looking after the emperor Kira Yoshinaka. As was tradition at the time, the young diplomats prepared gifts for the emperor, who was renowned for his pompous attitude and volatile temper. Unsurprisingly, he was unsatisfied with his gifts and humiliated Kamei in front of the shogun. Filled with rage, Kamei wanted to kill Kira for his abhorrent dismissal of the virtue of respect. Kira had dishonoured him. Fortunately, Kamei’s retainers recognised this rage and silently bribed Kira to treat Kamei with respect, thus saving both their lives in the process.

Asano was not so lucky.

Kira continued to treat Asano like scum on his shoe, until one day, as legend has it, he called Asano a “country bumpkin with no manners”, which was the straw that broke the camels back. Asano drew his dagger on Kira, slashing twice wildly and drawing blood across the emperor’s face. Though the injury was but a flesh wound, Asano had dishonoured himself by drawing a blade in the castle and brought disgrace to his clan. By order of the shogun, as well as bound by Bushido, Asano was to fulfil seppuku and his retainers were made ronin – samurai without masters.

On death, Asano left 300 men without masters. Of course, the virtue of loyalty had these men bound to Asano, so to bring justice and to fulfil their role, 47 of the ronin, led by Oishi, vowed to seek revenge, accepting the inevitable seppuku that would have to follow. This did not come as a surprise to Kira, who fortified his home and surrounded it by guards. Desperate to exact his revenge, Oishi sacrificed any respect he had left in his home, spending a whole year drinking and buying prostitutes, determined to make Kira put his guard down.

Oishi brought disgrace to what was left of Asano’s ronin by falling asleep drunk in the streets. In an act of contempt towards who Oishi seemed to be, a Samurai from Satsuma kicked the drunk in his slumber for bringing such disgrace to the Samurai. None of this mattered to Oishi, who was willing to sacrifice anything to bring justice to his master’s death. Nearly two years later, as Kira began to let his guard down, Oishi divorced his wife of 20 years, sending her and his children away so they would be safe, except his eldest who would fight by his side.

Over the next week, the 47 ronin would meet to discuss their plans. One of the most dedicated had married the daughter of the builder of Kira’s house in a deceitful ploy to get floor plans of the building. Oishi and his son led to groups in a siege of Kira’s house in the dead of night, storming both the front and back of the building.

Separately, 4 ronin scaled the walls of the building to take out the nightwatchmen.

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O At the sound of a drum, the siege began. Fuelled by their desire for revenge, the ronin stormed the building, only faced by opposition from Samurai in barefoot who were not prepared for the raid. One by one, the ronin pushed through the Samurai, cutting down 19 who stood in their way, and injuring a further 20, but not before announcing that they would not strike down anyone who stood aside for them to enact their revenge.

Meanwhile, the cowardly emperor hid in a closet, using his wife and female servants as protection.

Unsurprisingly, Oishi found Kira. In a final act of respect for another Samurai, Oishi handed Kira Asano’s old blade, hoping to let him perform seppuku and find some peace in his death. Kira simply sobbed and cowered until Oishi accepted the man had no honour and took his head himself.

Unsurprisingly, the shogun could not let the ronin live. However, he did grant them the right to an honourable death in the form of seppuku. Only one was spared.

On the 4th day of the 2nd month, 1703, 46 ronin raised their short swords by order of the shogun.

On the 4th day of the 2nd month, 1703, 46 short swords found their home in their masters’ stomachs.

In Confucian Japan, the tale of the 47 ronin was revered as a tale of loyalty to one’s master and the honour of the Samurai. Upon learning of their sacrifice, the man from Satsuma who had kicked the drunken Oishi visited their grave and joined them in seppuku, not even forced by the shogun. The ronin in this story showed all the virtues of a Samurai. Loyal to a fault, courageous, and showed mercy to those caught in the crossfire.

Yet still they were bound to death by the rules they swore their life to. When 47 men sacrifice their lives to get revenge on but one man, is this really an example of great honour?

Final thoughts - to die a hero

“Bushido is realized in the presence of death. This means choosing death whenever there is a choice between life and death. There is no other reasoning.” Yamamoto Tsunetomo This quote, as well as the previous quote on the way of the warrior, really highlight the shortcomings of the Samurai ideals. Despite the good intentions and the moralistic virtues, there is an underlying and somewhat disturbing romanticisation of death that casts an ugly shadow over whatever good intentions there were. The Samurai seemed to embrace death, not fear it. There was a strong sense of the need to die what they viewed as an honourable death and for that reason they went into battle without wavering, as the alternative was much worse. The act of Seppuku shows a very interesting cultural difference between Confucian Japan and more Western beliefs such as Catholicism, where it is considered a sin, much less the most honourable way to die.

In the 21st century, the Bushido is used as a way to encourage workers to remain loyal to their company in an attempt to get the maximum amount of work done by its employees.

Though this was not a large issue at the time, it does raise the question of there being any honour in blind loyalty without thought of the consequences. Oishi uprooted his entire family, leaving his loyal wife alone in an act of loyalty to his master, and dragged his oldest son to the grave with him. Today, he is idolised in Japan and his story has been made into at least 6 movies. In attempting to answer the question regarding the honour behind Samurai culture, you are left with a much harder and less historical question to answer: Is there any honour in death?

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BABLAKE HISTORY MAGAZINE | 2021

H HA AIIL LE EE E S SE EL LA AS SS SIIE E,, H HO OW W A A M MA AN N B BE EC CA AM ME E C CO ON NS SIID DE ER RE ED D T TH HE E M ME ES SS SIIA AH H T TO O M MIIL LL LIIO ON NS S

A History of the Modern Popularisation of The Pan-African Idea that God Is Black Isaac Grindrod

The airport arrival of the Lion of Judah

It is November 2nd, 1966 and Hailee Selassie, a Christian practicing Ethiopian on a political visit, is about to be received as either the Messiah or God incarnate at Norman Manley International Airport, Kingston, Jamaica. The time is 1:20pm. An uncountable average of 100,000 Jamaicans fill the small airport on a pilgrimage. The entire place and surroundings is packed with the unavoidable report of loud chants, often accompanied by drums and the large banners, as well as the joyous open use of spliffs and chalices every few metres, creating a visible mist of ganja in the anxious yet restful noon air. In a few minutes time, Selassie’s plane will arrive, along with the sudden halting of the rain, at which point the crowd roars and the remark “see how God stop de rain” is directly quoted by the official civil reception of his majesty. The reception then reports a breakdown in controlling the unprecedented and deafeningly loud crowd: “The crowd simply broke down any barriers that stood in their way in their eagerness to position themselves as close as possible to the "King of Kings.". It would only be until 2:15pm that Selassie opened his plane door, prompting sound "louder than the sound of thunder rolling, louder even than an explosion", with many breaking down and crying, with quotes such as “God is with us. mek me touch his garment”. The Lion of Judah proceeds to issue an amiable wave. A wave interpreted by Rastafarian historians as both a call for calm (as the translator for the Arabic speaker would later call for, until the military could act as an escort) and a royal gesture of the messiah’s arrival.

This is known as “Groudon Day”, celebrated annually around the world, is the second holiest day of the religion Rastafaria. The most holy day of Rastafaria is its origin: the coronation of Selassie in 1930. Born Ras Tafari, (with “Ras” being a family title equivalent of duke in Ethiopia), he was the emperor of Ethiopia for 44 years. But the question begs, why was the Christian president of Ethiopia, who spoke not a lick of English, becoming of God on earth within the hearts and minds of the Jamaican people who created a religion in his name. He was a prolific figure, being called “father of Africa” upon his death a year after disposition from power in 1975, although some Rastafarians deny his death, prompting his classification between documents often being that he is “missing”.

"The day Jah arrived" - Groudon Day

How did this happen?

To understand why Selassie became considered God, the bloodshed of African people is crucial. In the latter part of the 19th century (between 1881-1914) the European superpowers competed ravenously like dogs in the "Rape of Africa". It was appropriately named due to the competitive expansionist process of all but 10% of Africa being invaded and commodified into property by 1914 - the 10% being Ethiopia and Liberia. Ethiopia was the second and most prominent African country to gain independence from colonisers and the only of native African people. The first rather was the smaller Liberia, settled in by returned American slaves after slavery was abolished in 1862. Ethiopia stood out as it fought against the “Rape of Africa”. The First Abyssinian War that lasted from 1895 to 1896, in which Italy, who had seized Ethiopia as a colony at the time, attempted total forceful domination of the land which resulted in a mutiny. The battle resulted in Italian defeat, epitomised by the battle of Adwa. The Ethiopians fought fiercely. They were granted opportunity as French and Russian rivals of Italy weaponised the larger Ethiopian army - a proxy war from a greedy attempt to sabotage each other's colonisation processes. After Adwa, the treaty of Addis Ababa was signed granting independence. Zewditu, the empress from that point forward, was a part of the Solomonic Dynasty, claiming lineal descent from King Solomon, the descendant of David in the Bible, who led God’s chosen people of the covenant in Israel and being a prophet in both Judaism and majorly in Islam. Some Rastafarians even relate this lineage to King David from the Bible and therefore Jesus. So in 1930 when she died and the next in the Solomonic line was Selassie, he had a strong lineage. History was made. Hailee Selassie’s coronation was truly royal, the Ethiopian’s enjoyed what was described and celebrated as a “splendid affair” with global superpowers all in attendance, unaware of the more massive cultural explosion they were about to cause. One of the most important moments of all time as Rastafarians, but how did it make them? after all, it was not intended so why did a coronation create a new religion? There is one more key ingredient of the period on the next page that, when combined with Ethiopia’s history, caused this view.

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Why did this cause that?

That is pan-Africanism. This is the idea of solidarity of all Africans, Africans being all people throughout the world dotted who belonged to African Diaspora. At this point, the entirety of the African Nationhood had been dragged through the trauma of slavery and the ideologies of struggle and resistance. The African race as a people had been torn apart by colonialization, slavery, racism in emigration and mistreatment ranging from atrocities to global prejudice so etched into our culture even now racism is still a topic of life and death in our news today what with the recent BLM movement. Yet pan-Africanism was hope in the darkest peak of the post “Rape of Africa”. It was the evolution of African nationhood, to look back to African history, seeing the glory of Ethiopia and its rulers dating back to the very holy kings and original chosen people of God that all Abrahamic religions revered. And so Pan-Africanism evolved to a branch known as “ethiopianism”, with those enslaved and abused across the continent identifying with Ethiopia as the “motherland” of The Bibles "Milk and Honey" with its ruler being related to the God's chosen covenant people, it was a clear link.

Ethiopia was dually a place where human life is theorised b scientists today to have started anciently back when the only continent was “Pangea”, and so the pride of all of bloody Africa drew towards this kingdom of independence and revolutionary glory. This all culminated when one part of rising Pan-Africanism accompanying this empowerment at the turn of the 20th century made paces.

This was the widely popular Garvey movement among Africans. Marcus Garvey, a famous political figure and supporter of African rights in America, said in 1920: “look to Africa, when a black king shall be crowned, for the day of deliverance is at hand”. This years Juneteenth celebration still uses his flag more widely than Rastafarianism who also adopted it. With red uniting blood that was shed, black of their existence as a nation without recognition, and green for the rich abundant naturally wealth and history of Africa. To many Selassie was this pride that was beaten down in history - and it became religion.

What happened next?

And so the eyes of the world were on Ethiopia in 1930 when Garvey’s prophecies were to come true in the eyes of endless observant watchers. The Jamaican people under British rule had little to no access to the televised coronation. Instead the information travelled to them through Time Magazine’s special coverage of the event causing the word of mouth of those who read it to spread like wildfire.

From this point effectively, Rastafarians began. Calling God “Jah”, short for “Jehovah”, and speaking of knowing him rather than believing him. They have believed in numerous different views from different groups, and some of these views are temporal. For instance the first Rastafarians would have believed in the inferiority of white people to black people, something that could be expected of an opressed people starving, marginalised and abused in the West during the Great Depression. Whereas a modern Rastafarian being more open and spiritual, even with white Rastafarians in harmony, with hard racial superiority being a lost extremism and Selassie being considered more as someone channelling the Holy Spirit for some. The most defining pillars of Rastafaria, however, include African people being in exile and looking for the promised land of Ethiopia, just as Jews have to Israel, as well as the holiness and empowerment of the spirit of black culture in which humanity in close to Jah, who we can channel in holy spirit, hence how they speak of knowing him. Most of all they believe Jah to have revealed himself in some form in Hailee Selassie, whether it be the second coming of Christ scriptures foretold or the “breath of the temple” being the spirit of God revealing himself in a holy lineage to guide the hell living Jamaicans to the heaven of Ethiopia. In the Bible God says according to Jeremaih 8:21: “For the hurt of the daughter of my people am I hurt; I am black; as astonishment hath taken hold of me. Jeremiah 8:21 “. This is only a fragment of a whole body of scripture that can be interpreted to support Rastafari. Selassie continued on to fight for African independence in the second Abyssinian War in which the renewed Italian expansion craved by nationalist dictator Benito Mussolini snatched back Italy for a brief period of 1946-41 until, after years of exile, Selassie led along with a force of Ethiopian patriots fought for the liberation of Ethiopia one again, supported by the military support of Britain, who opposed Mussolini.

"Iron Lion zion" - the end...

This story, although etched in blood pride and tears and smoked in peace and love in the Rastafarians that dotted the earth, was small. Rastafaria had little prominence in media and the idea that "God is Black" despite its interpretation as valid as any religion, was swept into the footnotes of a races history behind the scenes of our history books on European wars.

However there was one person at that airport in 1966 and it was Rita Anderson. She had a religious experience in the presence of Selassie, feeling the presence of God as if nothing else was as true as it. When she became Rita Marley the same year, it was her along with Marley's exposure to others experience alike that lead him to convert from Christianity and start not cutting his hair. Today Marley is widely credited for bringing Rastafaria to the masses, he even sings of Selassie's divinity in songs such as "Iron Lion Zion".

Interviewer: "Can you tell the people what it means being a Rastafarian?"

Marley: "I would say to the people, Be still, and know that His Imperial Majesty, Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia is the Almighty..."

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BABLAKE HISTORY MAGAZINE | 2021

THE EMPIRE OF MALI

How the richest man in the medieval world popularised Islam throughout Western Africa Fraser Shaw When reflecting on the richest humans of all time, many people would assume this title was reserved for modern-day billionaires such as Bill Gates or Jeff Bezos. But in actuality, a King of Mali had accumulated double their wealth but has little of their fame.

This King of Mali, Mansa Musa, was the ruler of Mali’s empire from 1312 C.E. to 1337 C.E. and was renowned for his devout following of Islam, his endless wealth, and the pilgrimage to Mecca that crashed Egypt’s economy and spread the news of African imperialism and wealth into Europe. Gaining his immense wealth from the gold, salt and ivory trade, how did Musa use all this wealth?

Map of the Malian Empire

The rise of Mansa Musa, Religion and Trade

Born in 1280 C.E., Musa I was a distant relative to the founder of Malian’s empire, Sundiata Keita. While his grandfather, Abu-Bakr Keita, and father, Faga Laye, had no great significance in Mali’s empire, Musa was appointed as the deputy to Abubakari Keita II, the king prior to Musa. In the Malian empire, the deputy was a role that would act as king while the monarch was on an expedition or pilgrimage. This title also pronounced them as the rightful heir to the Malian throne. If the King were to never return, as Abubakari never did, the deputy was crowned.

While the loss of Abubakari in the Atlantic, an expedition that may have reached the Americas, was a tragic event for Musa and his empire, the King had visions on his empire and its economic and religious future….

Looking at the empire geographically, Mali itself is brimming with an environment full of natural resources, the most important being gold, which made the empire a very affluent and prosperous kingdom.

Exporting the most gold in the world during the 14th century, the empire used its trade routes towards northern and eastern African to gather resources from Europe and Asia. However, Mali’s most influential Trade Routes of the Malian Empire and impactful trades made in this period was actually for free, and it was the teachings of Islam.

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The import of Islam can be pinpointed to the Berbers, an ethnic group from Northern Africa, who often traded salt from the Mediterranean for the Malian gold. The Berbers were one of the earliest known African ethnicities to convert to Islam and so this new religion within Africa quickly spread across the trade routes and into the cities of Mali during the late 13th century. The conversion to Islam was seen as beneficial to the Kings of Mali and the merchants through a political and economic lens that would lead to forming strong bonds with Northern Africa and the empires there. However, during this initial period, Islam was never officially the religion of Mali prior to Musa’s reign in which the devout King set to change.

After Mali’s successful conquest across Western Africa, (in which his empire conquered parts of modern day: Mali, Senegal, the Gambia, Guinea, Niger, Nigeria, Chad, Mauritania, and Burkina Faso) Mali had annexed major cities such as Goa and Timbuktu. These cities were the centre of trading within Western Africa and would end up being centres for the Islamification within the region. With a region now expanding across the Western land, the Malian empire had grown in wealth exponentially as Musa was ready to embark on his own expedition.

The Hajj: Mali's emergence into Europe and history

In 1324, Musa began the Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) as the first man from Western Africa to do so. The journey was Musa’s moment to show off to the world as he saw it as "an entry into the cultured world of the Eastern Mediterranean." The Mansa brought with him 60,000 men including 12,000 enslaved personal retinues all clad in brocade and Persian silk, showing the wealth of his empire. Holding a golden staff on his Hajj, Musa was accompanied by 80 camels supposedly carrying 300 pounds of gold each.

The Catalan Atlas Depicting Mansa Musa Upon his journey the Malian party had arrived in Cairo where Musa met with the Sultan of Egypt, Al-Nasir Muhammad. While in Egypt, the king had built mosques and gave out enough gold to crash the economy through inflation. The historian al-Umarī, who visited Cairo 12 years after the emperor’s visit, found the inhabitants of this city, with a population estimated at one million, still singing the praises of Mansa Musa.

When Mansa Musa reached the city of Alexandria, a city filled with European merchants and influence, the King made sure to leave a mark on the city and its inhabitants by the amount of gold he handed out. This generosity and introduction to the city had resulted in his gold reaching the hands of Venice’s merchants who took the stories and Mansa Musa and his wealth to mainland Europe.

The exposure in Europe had a seismic effect on Africa’s reputation and the memory of Musa. As the news spread of an African ruler handing out more money than many European countries had, due to the economic crisis occurring in Europe, many saw Africa as a land full of gold and rich rulers. The impact of Mansa Musa and his stories throughout Europe were forever immortalised through the Catalan Atlas made by Cresques Abraham in 1375 C.E. who included Musa at the bottom right of the map towards Africa. This acknowledgement of Mansa Musa in the Catalan Atlas was impressive as, while looking back, the map served as one of the medieval periods most important maps, thus cementing how influential and grand Musa was.

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After his journey to Mecca, Musa returned to his empire fuelled with his passion for Islam and its teachings.

While he did build many mosques across his journey, Musa wanted his empire to be a centre for the Islam within Africa and help spread the ideals of his religion. Building mosques such as Djinguereber and Sankore, Timbuktu became a centre for Muslims from all places to come and study the ruler had artifacts and religious centres to amaze the world.

However, after Mansa Musa’s death in 1337, his son Maghan I succeeded him but to less notoriety. Collapsing completely in the 17th century, Mansa Musa and his legacy was one that put a sophisticated African society on the European map, breaking many assumptions about Africa and its supposed primitive life. Musa’s actions towards Islamification were also a major event within Africa that had undoubtfully been a causation of Africa’s population being 41% Muslim, showcasing how this ruler revolutionised religion and economy throughout his continent and how his name deserves more attention.

Djinguereber Mosque in Timbuktu

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BABLAKE HISTORY MAGAZINE | 2021

PUZZLE PAGE

A page full of historically exciting puzzles

emperors wordsearch

Help Caesar Augustus and his great Uncle Julius Caesar to find the 10 largest empires of history in this word search. Just scan the QR code and complete the wordsearch.

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BABLAKE HISTORY MAGAZINE | 2021

napoleon's

Pcrossword UZZLE PAGE The ‘Little Corporal’ is trying to complete this crossword on wars throughout history. Can you help him? Scan the QR code A p a g e f u lto l oaccess f h i s t o r the i c a l lPuzzle. y exciting puzzles

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Colouring PAGE

Sophie French

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A page of historical figures for you to personally design Just print off and start colouring.

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BABLAKE HISTORY MAGAZINE | 2021

AZTEC CRAFT AND RECIPES

Tortillas

The main food eaten by the aztecs was maize. They would eat it with almost everything. One form in which they ate maize was a very thin maize pancake, called tortillas. They would use it to scoop up food from a dish or to create a parcel around food. Tortillas are now used predominantly in central and south American cooking. Here is a recipe to make your own tortillas, with a suggestion on how to serve them.

Ingredients:

This recipe should make 6 tortillas

250g plain flour, with some more for dusting 2 tbsp vegetable oil Method:

1/2 tsp fine salt STEP 1

Combine the flour, vegetable oil and salt in a bowl. Pour over 150ml warm water and knead to bring the mixture together. Remove from the bowl and knead on a lightly floured work surface for around 5 mins until you make a soft, smooth ball of dough. Cover with a clean tea towel and rest for at least 15 mins before rolling out.

STEP 2 Cut the dough into 6 equal pieces (about 75g each). Roll out each ball of dough as thinly as possible on a floured work surface. They should make rounds about 20 cm wide, 2mm thick.

STEP 3 Heat a large frying pan over a medium-high heat. Cook the tortillas for 1-2 mins on each side until golden brown and toasted. Wrap them in foil and cover in a tea towel to keep warm, while you cook the rest. Keeps for two days well wrapped, or cool, wrap and freeze for up to three months.

Quesadillas: Traditional quesadillas were made with a corn tortilla that was warmed on a griddle, filled with cheese and a variety of fillings Method: Heat a large frying pan (cast iron works best) on medium heat. Once the pan has heated up, place your tortilla on the hot pan. Once air pockets begin to form, take a handful of grated cheese (roughly 25g) and sprinkle over the top.

Add on any other ingredients such as sliced onion, mushrooms, etc. To get a flavour of the aztec's favourite spice add sliced green chilli. After the cheese has melted (it should take 1-2 minutes) either fold the tortilla over the top or place another tortilla on top. Remove from the pan and cut it into wedges.

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Make your own aztec mask

Masks of the major Aztec deities were probably worn by impersonators to enact scenes from creation stories and to recount the deeds of culture heroes. Examples of traditional masks can be seen in the british museum, for example the turquoise mosaic mask. Print this mask template out, and colour it in. Glue it onto a piece of cardboard or stiff card. Cut out the mask and the eyeholes and mouth. You now have your very own aztec mask!

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BABLAKE HISTORY MAGAZINE | 2021

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puzzle page - page 29

Information: https://www.britannica.com/topic/list-of-wars-2031197 https://citi.io/2020/01/20/the-10-biggest-empires-in-human-history/ Pictures: https://www.history.com/topics/france/napoleon https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesar_(Andrea_Ferrucci)#/media/File:Metropolitan_Ferrari_Caesar_2.jpg https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus

Aztec Craft and recipes - PAGE 33

https://www.bbcgoodfood.com/recipes/tortillas https://www.simplyrecipes.com/recipes/quesadilla/ https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/E_Am-St-400 https://altohartley.com/a-brief-history-of-the-tortilla/

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